[1] Human insulin receptor and its relationship to the tyrosine kinase family of oncogenes.
Ullrich et al., 1985
Nature. 1985;313(6005):756–761.
[2] An in vivo and in vitro study on the mechanism of prednisone-induced insulin resistance in healthy individuals.
Pagano et al., 1983
Institute of Internal Medicine, University of Turin, 10126 Torino-Corso Polonia 14, Italy; Lepetit Group spA, Milan, Italy Test clinico J Clin Investire.1983 novembre;72(5):1814-20.
[3] Mechanisms of stress, energy homeostasis and insulin resistance in European adolescents--the HELENA study
Huybrechts et al., 2014
Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2014 Oct;24(10):1082-9.
[4] Reduced Tyrosine and Serine-632 Phosphorylation of Insulin Receptor Substrate-1 in the Gastrocnemius Muscle of Obese Zucker Rat
Ola, 2022
Curr Issues Mol Biol 2022 Nov 29;44(12):6015-6027.
[5] Distinct Signalling Properties of Insulin Receptor Substrate (IRS)-1 and IRS-2 in Mediating Insulin/IGF-1 Action
Rabiee et al., 2018
Cell Signal. 2018 Mar 14;47:1–15.
[6] PI3K/PTEN Signaling in Angiogenesis and Tumorigenesis
Jiang & Liu, 2009
Adv Cancer Res. 2009:102:19-65.
[7] The PTEN/PI3K pathway governs normal vascular development and tumor angiogenesis
Hamada et al., 2005
Genes Dev. 2005 Sep 1;19(17):2054–2065.
[8] AKT ISOFORMS-AS160-GLUT4: The defining axis of insulin resistance
Sharma e Dey, 2021
Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2021 Dec;22(4):973-986.
[9] Preferential effect of montelukast on dapagliflozin: Modulation of IRS-1/AKT/GLUT4 signaling and endoplasmic reticulum stress response elements improves insulin sensitivity in soleus muscle of type 2 diabetic rat model
Fleifel et al., 2022
Life Sciences. 2022;307:120865.
[10] Luteolin extracted from Lonicera japonica Thunb. restores GLUT4-mediated glucose uptake through the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway in insulin resistance
Park et al., 2026
Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy. 2026;201:119616.
[11] Neuregulin-1β increases glucose uptake and promotes GLUT4 translocation in palmitate-treated C2C12 myotubes by activating the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway
Yu et al., 2023
Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2023;13:1066279.
[12] Trilobatin ameliorates insulin resistance through the IRS-AKT-GLUT4 signaling pathway in C2C12 myotubes and ob/ob mice
Liu et al., 2020
Chinese Medicine. 2020;15:110.
[13] Stevioside attenuates insulin resistance in skeletal muscle by facilitating IR/IRS-1/Akt/GLUT4 signaling pathways: An in vivo and in silico approach
Deenadayalan et al., 2021
Molecules. 2021;26(24):7689.
[14] Insulin signaling pathway activation and GLUT4 membrane translocation in human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes
Querio et al., 2024
International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2024;25(15):8197.
[15] Rheb GTPase is a direct target of TSC2 GAP activity and regulates mTOR signaling
Inoki et al., 2003
Genes Dev. 2003 Aug 1;17(15):1829-34.
[16] Mammalian Target of Rapamycin (mTOR) Inhibition as a Potential Antiepileptogenic Therapy: From Tuberous Sclerosis to Common Acquired Epilepsies
Wong, 2009
Epilepsia. 2009 Oct 8;51(1):27–36.
[17] Regulation of mTOR function in response to hypoxia by REDD1 and the TSC1/TSC2 tumor suppressor complex
Brugarolas et al., 2004
Genes Dev. 2004 Dec 1;18(23):2893-904.
[18] The hypoxia-induced paralogs Scylla and Charybdis inhibit growth by down-regulating S6K activity upstream of TSC in Drosophila
Reiling & Hafen, 2004
Genes Dev. 2004 Dec 1;18(23):2879-92.
[19] Role of mTOR in Glucose and Lipid Metabolism
Mao & Zhang, 2018
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19, 2043.
[20] Role of mTORC1-S6K1 Signaling in Regulation of Hematopoietic Stem Cells and Acute Myeloid Leukemia
Ghosh & Kapur, 2017
Experimental Hematology. 2017;50:13–21.
[21] Nuclear S6K1 Regulates cAMP Response Element-Dependent Gene Transcription through Activation of the mTOR Signaling Pathway
Jeon et al., 2022
Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 2022;594:101–108.
[22] Direct Visualization of S6K1 Recruitment and Phosphorylation in the mTORC1 Signaling Pathway in Living Cells
Ahmed et al., 2019
Scientific Reports. 2019;9:3408.
[23] Hyperbaric oxygen treatment increases intestinal stem cell proliferation through the mTORC1/S6K1 signaling pathway in Mus musculus
Casanova-Maldonado et al., 2023
Biol Res. 2023 Jul 13;56(1):41.
[24] Dysregulation of m6A RNA Methylation Impairs Adaptive Hypertrophic Response and Induces Maladaptation through Hyperactivation of mTORC1-S6K1 and Impaired Autophagy
Annamalai et al., 2025
Cell Communication and Signaling. 2025;23(1):522.
[25] Arginine Deficiency Induced by Acute Liver Failure Impairs the Blood-Brain Barrier by Inhibiting the mTORC1-S6K1/4EBP1 Pathway and Inducing Autophagy
Yang et al., 2025
Cell Death & Disease. 2025;16(1):842.
[26] Effect of the lysosomotropic agent chloroquine on mTORC1 activation and protein synthesis in human skeletal muscle
Borack et al., 2021
Nutr Metab (Lond). 2021 Jun 12;18(1):61.
[27] Nutrient Overload, Insulin Resistance, and Ribosomal Protein S6 Kinase 1, S6K1
Um et al., 2006
Cell Metabolism. 2006;3(6):393–402.
[28] Nutrients suppress phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt signaling via raptor-dependent mTOR-mediated insulin receptor substrate 1 phosphorylation
Tzatsos & Kandror, 2006
Molecular and Cellular Biology. 2006;26(1):63–76.
[29] The TSC1-2 tumor suppressor controls insulin-PI3K signaling via regulation of IRS proteins
Harrington et al., 2004
J Cell Biol. 2004 Jul 19;166(2):213-23.
[30] Inappropriate Activation of the TSC/Rheb/mTOR/S6K Cascade Induces IRS1/2 Depletion, Insulin Resistance, and Cell Survival Deficiencies
Shah et al., 2004
Current Biology. 2004;14(18):1650–1656.
[31] Saturated fatty acids induce insulin resistance in podocytes through inhibition of IRS1 via activation of both IKKβ and mTORC1
Denhez et al., 2020
Sci Rep. 2020 Dec 10;10(1):21628.
[32] Chronic Increase in Physical Activity Inhibits mTOR/S6K1 Signaling and Reduces IRS-1 Serine Phosphorylation in Rat Skeletal Muscle in the Fed State
Glynn et al., 2008
Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism. 2008;33(1):93–101.
[33] Targeting HIF-1 for cancer therapy
Semenza, 2003
Nat Rev Cancer. 2003 Oct;3(10):721-32.
[34] Insulin activates hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha in human and rat vascular smooth muscle cells via phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase and mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways: impairment in insulin resistance owing to defects in insulin signalling
Doronzo et al., 2006
Diabetologia. 2006 May;49(5):1049-63.
[35] Insulin stimulates hypoxia-inducible factor 1 through a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/target of rapamycin-dependent signaling pathway
Treins et al., 2002
J Biol Chem. 2002 Aug 2;277(31):27975-81.
[36] Insulin induces REDD1 expression through hypoxia-inducible factor 1 activation in adipocytes
Regazzetti et al., 2010
J Biol Chem. 2010 Feb 19;285(8):5157-64.
[37] REDD1 enhances protein phosphatase 2A-mediated dephosphorylation of Akt to repress mTORC1 signaling
Dennis et al., 2014
Sci Signal. 2014 Jul 22;7(335):ra68.
[38] Hypoxia regulates TSC1/2-mTOR signaling and tumor suppression through REDD1-mediated 14-3-3 shuttling
DeYoung et al., 2008
Genes Dev. 2008 Jan 15;22(2):239-51.
[39] Aberrant REDD1-mTORC1 responses to insulin in skeletal muscle from Type2 diabetics
Williamson et al., 2015
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2015 Oct 15;309(8):R855-63. Epub 2015 Aug 12.
[40] mTOR complex 2 signaling and functions
Oh & Jacinto, 2011
Cell Cycle. 2011;10(14):2305–2316.
[41] Association of mSin1 with mTORC2, Ras, and Akt Reveals a Crucial Domain on mSin1 Involved in Akt Phosphorylation
Yao et al., 2017
Oncotarget. 2017;8(38):63392–63404.
[42] mTORC2 Associates with Ribosomes to Promote Cotranslational Phosphorylation and Stability of Nascent Akt Polypeptide
Oh et al., 2010
EMBO Journal. 2010;29(23):3939–3951.
[43] mTORC2 Controls Folding and Stability of Akt and Protein Kinase C
Facchinetti et al., 2008
EMBO Journal. 2008;27(14):1932–1943.
[44] Autoregulation of the Mechanistic Target of Rapamycin (mTOR) Complex 2 Integrity Is Controlled by an ATP-Dependent Mechanism
Chen et al., 2013
Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2013;288(38):27019–27030.
[45] Hepatic mTORC2 Activates Glycolysis and Lipogenesis Through Akt, Glucokinase, and SREBP1c
Hagiwara et al., 2012
Cell Metabolism. 2012;15(5):725–738.
[46] Prolonged Rapamycin Treatment Inhibits mTORC2 Assembly and Akt/PKB
Sarbassov et al., 2006
Molecular Cell. 2006;22(2):159–168.
[47] Inhibition of histone deacetylase overcomes rapamycin-mediated resistance in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma by inhibiting Akt signaling through mTORC2
Gupta et al., 2009
Blood. 2009;114(14):2926–2935.
[48] Role of Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3 in the Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase/Akt Cell Survival Pathway
Pap & Cooper, 1998
Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1998;273(32):19929–19932.
[49] Essential Role for Protein Kinase B (PKB) in Insulin-induced Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3 Inactivation. Characterization of Dominant-negative Mutant of PKB
Van Weeren et al., 1998
Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1998;273(21):13150–13156.
[50] Akt Signalling Through GSK-3β, mTOR and Foxo1 Is Involved in Human Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy and Atrophy
Léger et al., 2006
The Journal of Physiology. 2006;576(Pt 3):923–933.
[51] Insulin Regulates AKT/GSK-3β Signaling, Tau Phosphorylation and Redox Homeostasis in SH-SY5Y Neuroblastoma Cells
Jorda et al., 2026
International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2026;27(12):5565.
[52] Targeting of the PI3 K/AKT/GSK3β Pathway in Parkinson's Disease: A Therapeutic Blueprint
AlRuwaili et al., 2025
Molecular Neurobiology. 2025;62(11):15108–15131.
[53] Nup358 restricts ER-mitochondria connectivity by modulating mTORC2/Akt/GSK3β signalling
Kalarikkal et al., 2024
EMBO Reports. 2024;25(10):4226–4251.
[54] AKT/GSK3β Signaling in Glioblastoma
Majewska & Szeliga, 2017
Neurochemical Research. 2017;42(3):918–924.
[55] Salidroside Inhibits Platelet Function and Thrombus Formation Through AKT/GSK3β Signaling Pathway
Wei et al., 2020
Aging (Albany NY). 2020;12(9):8151–8166.
[56] Phosphorylation of IRS-1 by Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3 Impairs Insulin Action
Eldar-Finkelman & Krebs, 1997
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1997;94(18):9660–9664.
[57] Constitutive activity of glycogen synthase kinase-3β: Positive regulation of steady-state levels of insulin receptor substrates-1 and -2 in adrenal chromaffin cells
Nemoto et al., 2006
Brain Res. 2006 Sep 19;1110(1):1-12.
[58] Modulation of Muscle Insulin Resistance by Selective Inhibition of Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3 in Zucker Diabetic Fatty Rats
Henriksen et al., 2003
American Journal of Physiology – Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2003;284(5):E892– E900.
[59] Short-term in vitro inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase 3 potentiates insulin signaling in type I skeletal muscle of Zucker Diabetic Fatty rats
Henriksen & Teachey, 2007
Metabolism, Volume 56, Issue 7, July 2007, Pages 931-938.
[60] Acute selective glycogen synthase kinase-3 inhibition enhances insulin signaling in prediabetic insulin-resistant rat skeletal muscle
Dokken et al., 2005
American Journal of Physiology – Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2005;288(6):E1188–E1194.
[61] Role of Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3 in Insulin Resistance and Type 2 Diabetes
Henriksen & Dokken, 2006
Current Drug Targets. 2006;7(11):1435–1441.
[62] Hyperinsulinemia drives glomerular podocyte injury and albuminuria via a self-perpetuating GSK3β-IRS1 insulin desensitization circuit
Chen et al., 2026
Metabolism. 2026 Jun:179:156571.
[63] Dexamethasone impairs insulin signalling and glucose transport by depletion of insulin receptor substrate-1, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and protein kinase B in primary cultured rat adipocytes
Buren et al., 2002
Eur J Endocrinol. 2002 Mar;146(3):419-29.
[64] REDD1 deletion prevents dexamethasone-induced skeletal muscle atrophy
Britto et al., 2014
Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2014 Dec 1;307(11):E983-93.
[65] Glucocorticoid-Mediated Skeletal Muscle Atrophy: Molecular Mechanisms and Potential Therapeutic Targets
Permpoon et al., 2025
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26(15), 7616.
[66] Effect of dexamethasone on insulin binding, glucose transport, and glucose oxidation of isolated rat adipocytes
Olefsky, 1975
J Clin Invest. 1975 Dec;56(6):1499-1508.
[67] Glucocorticoid-dependent REDD1 expression reduces muscle metabolism to enable adaptation under energetic stress
Britto et al., 2018
BMC Biology (2018) 16:65.
[68] Investigation of the Relationship Between Chronic Stress and Insulin Resistance in a Chinese Population
Yan et al., 2016
J Epidemiol. 2016 Jul 5;26(7):355-60.
[69] Molecular Mechanisms of Glucocorticoid-Induced Insulin Resistance
Beaupere et al., 2021
Int. Journal of Molecular. Science. 2021, 22, 623.
[70] Association of hair glucocorticoid levels with sleep quality indicators: a pilot study in apparently healthy perimenopausal and menopausal women
Mazgelytė et al., 2023
Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2023 Jul 17:14:1186014.
[71] A single night of partial sleep deprivation induces insulin resistance in multiple metabolic pathways in healthy subjects
Donga et al., 2010
J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010 Jun;95(6):2963-8.
[72] Effects of Sleep Fragmentation on Glucose Metabolism in Normal Subjects
Stamatakis & Punjabi, 2010
Chest. 2010 Jan;137(1):95-101.
[73] Sleep loss results in an elevation of cortisol levels the next evening
Leproult et al., 1997
Sleep, Volume 20, Issue 10, October 1997, Pages 865–870.
[74] Impact of Sleep and Its Disturbances on Hypothalamo-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Activity
Balbo et al., 2010
Int J Endocrinol. 2010:2010:759234.
[75] Skeletal muscle insulin signaling and whole-body glucose metabolism following acute sleep restriction in healthy males
Sweeney et al., 2017
Physiol Rep. 2017; Dec 12;5(23):e13498.
[76] Sleep loss: a novel risk factor for insulin resistance and Type 2 diabetes
Spiegel et al., 2008
J Appl Physiol 99: 2008 –2019, 2005.
[77] Associations between sleep loss and increased risk of obesity and diabetes
Knutson & Eve Van Cauter, 2008
Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2008; 1129: 287–304.
[78] Chronic Insufficient Sleep in Women Impairs Insulin Sensitivity Independent of Adiposity Changes: Results of a Randomized Trial
Zuraikat et al., 2024
Diabetes Care. 2024 Jan 1;47(1):117-125.
[79] Sleep influences on obesity, insulin resistance, and risk of type 2 diabetes
Reutrakul & Eve Van Cauter, 2018
Metabolism. 2018 Jul:84:56-66.
[80] Caffeine Stimulation of Cortisol Secretion Across the Waking Hours in Relation to Caffeine Intake Levels
Lovallo et al., 2005
Psychosom Med. 2005 Sep-Oct;67(5):734-9.
[81] Caffeinated coffee consumption impairs blood glucose homeostasis in response to high and low glycemic index meals in healthy men
Moisey et al., 2008
Am J Clin Nutr. 2008 May;87(5):1254-61.
[82] Effects of intravenous caffeine administered to healthy males during sleep
Lin et al., 1997
Depress Anxiety. 1997;5(1):21-8. <21::AID-DA4>3.0.CO;2-8.
[83] Inhibitory mechanism of caffeine on insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in adipose cells
Akiba et al., 2004
Biochem Pharmacol. 2004 Nov 15;68(10):1929-37.
[84] Caffeine Can Decrease Insulin Sensitivity in Humans
Keijzers et al., 2002
Diabetes Care 25:364–369, 2002.
[85] Consumption of caffeinated coffee and a high carbohydrate meal affects postprandial metabolism of a subsequent oral glucose tolerance test in young, healthy males
Moisey et al., 2010
Br J Nutr. 2010 Mar;103(6):833-41.
[86] Acute caffeine ingestion reduces insulin sensitivity in healthy subjects: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Shi et al., 2016
Nutr J. 2016 Dec 28;15(1):103.
[87] Caffeine Ingestion Is Associated With Reductions in Glucose Uptake Independent of Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes Before and After Exercise Training
Lee et al., 2005
Diabetes Care. 2005 Mar;28(3):566-72.
[88] Simultaneous coffee caffeine intake and sleep deprivation alter glucose homeostasis in Iranian men: a randomized crossover trial
Rasaei et al., 2016
Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2016 Dec;25(4):729-739.
[89] Dexamethasone represses signaling through the mammalian target of rapamycin in muscle cells by enhancing expression of REDD1
Wang et al., 2006
J Biol Chem. 2006 Dec 22;281(51):39128-34.
[90] Glucocorticoid elevation of dexamethasone-induced gene 2 (Dig2/RTP801/REDD1) protein mediates autophagy in lymphocytes
Molitoris et al., 2011
J Biol Chem. 2011 Aug 26;286(34):30181-9.
[91] REDD1 (regulated in development and DNA damage response 1) expression in skeletal muscle as a surrogate biomarker of the efficiency of glucocorticoid receptor blockade
Kumari et al., 2011
Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2011 Sep 9;412(4):644-7.