Scientific Book

La elección de vivir en salud o en enfermedad

«La elección de vivir en salud o en enfermedad» es el libro de A. Colonnese y R. Panzironi que profundiza en la relación entre alimentación, metabolismo, insulina, inflamación y sistema inmunitario. A partir de la evidencia científica, analiza los mecanismos biológicos implicados en el desarrollo de las enfermedades crónicas y el papel de la nutrición, la actividad física, el estrés y los micronutrientes. Un recorrido de divulgación científica para comprender el funcionamiento del organismo, conocer los factores de riesgo y tomar decisiones cotidianas conscientes, orientadas a la prevención, la salud y el bienestar.

Citar este artículo
Colonnese, A. & Panzironi, R. (2026). La elección de vivir en salud o en enfermedad. La elección de vivir en salud o en enfermedad. https://lifesciencehub.info/es/la-scelta-di-vivere-in-salute-o-in-malattia
La elección de vivir en salud o en enfermedad · ISBN 979-12-82692-05-2

DOI lsh.es.libro

  • Publicación 05/11/2026
  • Actualización 05/11/2026
  • LIFE PATHWAY
  • SEÑALIZACIÓN DE
  • RESISTENCIA A
  • PI3K/AKT/MTOR
  • AMPK
Life Pathway: esquema de los receptores de membrana y de las vías IRS, PI3K, AKT, AMPK, TSC1/TSC2, mTOR, REDD1 y HIF-1α que conectan la alimentación, el estrés, los nutrientes y el metabolismo celular
El Life Pathway integra receptores de membrana y señales de glutamato, insulina, dopamina, vitamina D, lactato y glucosa con las vías IRS-1/2–PI3K–AKT, AMPK–TSC1/TSC2–mTOR y REDD1–HIF-1α, conectando el estrés, los nutrientes y el metabolismo con la síntesis proteica y el equilibrio celular, eje central en la elección entre salud y enfermedad.

ABSTRACT

El libro «La elección de vivir en salud o en enfermedad», del Dr. A. Colonnese y R. Panzironi, profundiza en las relaciones entre alimentación, regulación metabólica, inmunidad y enfermedades crónicas. La salud surge como el resultado dinámico de la interacción entre procesos celulares, condiciones ambientales y comportamientos, sin que las decisiones individuales puedan determinar por completo el riesgo de enfermedad.

La respuesta a la comida implica la variabilidad glucémica, la secreción pancreática, el aclaramiento hepático y la sensibilidad a la insulina. Desde el receptor de la insulina, la señal atraviesa IRS-1/2, PI3K y AKT, y se integra con mTORC1, mTORC2, AMPK, HIF-1α, REDD1 y TSC1/TSC2. Estos reguladores coordinan la disponibilidad energética, la síntesis proteica, la autofagia y la adaptación al estrés. Las conexiones con el metabolismo lipídico, las prostaglandinas y el inmunometabolismo ayudan a interpretar la inflamación y la diferenciación inmunitaria, incluido el equilibrio Th17/Treg. La función de cada vía depende del contexto: señales necesarias para la reparación pueden sostener procesos patológicos en condiciones diferentes.

Las evidencias consideradas se refieren a la diabetes, la autoinmunidad, la neurodegeneración, los tumores y la aterosclerosis, y muestran cómo circuitos compartidos asumen funciones distintas según los tejidos y las condiciones. Las asociaciones epidemiológicas, los estudios clínicos y los modelos experimentales requieren interpretaciones distintas. La alimentación, el ejercicio, el tabaco, las relaciones sociales, el estrés y los ritmos del sueño interactúan con estos procesos. Las vitaminas, el magnesio, los omega-3, la melatonina y los compuestos bioactivos de las especias ofrecen otros ejemplos de regulación celular.

El concepto de Life Pathway propone una lectura integrada de las redes metabólicas, energéticas y ambientales, sin identificar una nueva vía molecular. Este marco interpretativo conecta mecanismos biológicos y comportamientos cotidianos, y favorece decisiones preventivas realistas e individualizadas, compatibles con los tratamientos adecuados. Sigue siendo necesario aclarar la relevancia clínica de los mecanismos experimentales, evitando explicaciones únicas para enfermedades multifactoriales, distinguiendo la plausibilidad biológica de las pruebas de eficacia y reconociendo también la contribución de los factores genéticos, ambientales y sociales.

Hemos llegado al final de este libro. Antes de despedirnos, deseamos recorrer juntos el camino que nos ha llevado desde los hábitos alimentarios hasta las señales celulares, desde las enfermedades crónicas hasta las posibilidades que ofrece la prevención. Estas conclusiones recogen el significado de cada etapa y recomponen sus conexiones, para que todo lo que hemos encontrado pueda convertirse en un conocimiento útil en la vida cotidiana.

Nuestra intención, como autores, ha sido acompañar al lector dentro de los mecanismos biológicos que contribuyen a la salud. Conocer el motivo por el cual un comportamiento importa puede hacer más concreta la voluntad de modificarlo. Una comida, una caminata, el descanso y una relación significativa adquieren un valor diferente cuando comprendemos que pueden influir en la forma en que el organismo utiliza la energía, afronta el estrés y mantiene sus propias funciones.

El título La elección de vivir con salud o con enfermedad expresa esta posibilidad de participación. La salud depende también de factores genéticos, ambientales y sociales que no elegimos, y nadie decide voluntariamente enfermar. Sin embargo, existen hábitos sobre los cuales podemos intervenir, con posibilidades diferentes para cada uno. La conciencia que deseamos promover se refiere precisamente a este espacio: reconocer lo que podemos mejorar, sin transformar la enfermedad en una culpa ni la prevención en una promesa de invulnerabilidad.

Siguiendo las investigaciones, hemos encontrado resultados clínicos, asociaciones epidemiológicas y mecanismos estudiados en laboratorio. Cada nivel contribuye a la comprensión, pero responde a preguntas diferentes. Conservar esta distinción nos permite reconocer las oportunidades sin atribuir a las hipótesis el valor de certezas. Es también el presupuesto para combinar un estilo de vida consciente con los tratamientos adecuados, respetando la complejidad de la persona.

Retomaremos, pues, el recorrido en el orden en que se ha desarrollado, dejando emerger lo que une temas aparentemente distantes. Al final, daremos un nombre a la perspectiva que los atraviesa: Life Pathway, la propuesta editorial con la que reunimos la comunicación entre metabolismo, ambiente y adaptación celular. Para comprender su significado, volvamos al punto donde todo comenzó: nuestra relación con la comida.

Alimentación y cambios en nuestros hábitos

El primer capítulo nos invitó a observar la alimentación como parte de nuestra historia biológica y cotidiana. Comer es un gesto habitual, a menudo realizado sin cuestionarse qué sucede después. Sin embargo, la elección de los alimentos, su procesamiento y la forma en que se combinan contribuyen a determinar las respuestas del organismo. De esta constatación nació la pregunta que ha guiado el libro: ¿cuánto de las condiciones metabólicas que encontramos hoy se entrelaza con hábitos repetidos a lo largo del tiempo?

La referencia a la tradición alimentaria mediterránea nos ha devuelto a la calidad de la comida y a su composición general. Su valor, desde esta perspectiva, reside en la atención a los alimentos y a la variedad de las fuentes nutricionales. Para recuperar este significado, es necesario mirar más allá del nombre atribuido a una dieta y considerar lo que se consume efectivamente, en las cantidades y combinaciones que caracterizan la vida real.

Así, comenzamos a desplazar la atención de las simples calorías a la respuesta metabólica. Dos comidas pueden proporcionar energía y producir efectos diferentes sobre la velocidad de absorción de los nutrientes, la glucemia y la secreción de insulina. Esta diferencia no agota el valor nutricional de los alimentos, pero ayuda a comprender por qué la relación con la comida merece una evaluación más amplia que el simple conteo energético.

El primer resultado de esta reflexión es una mayor atención a la continuidad de los hábitos. La salud metabólica se construye a través de comportamientos que se repiten, dentro de condiciones personales y ambientales que pueden hacerlos más fáciles o más difíciles. Por ello, una elección alimentaria útil debe poder integrarse en la vida cotidiana, manteniendo la adecuación nutricional y la sostenibilidad. El conocimiento sirve para hacer que dichas elecciones sean comprensibles, evitando que dependan únicamente de prohibiciones o de un entusiasmo momentáneo.

Con esta perspectiva, nuestro recorrido encontró su punto de partida concreto. La comida introduce sustancias que el organismo debe reconocer, distribuir y utilizar; la respuesta a este ingreso cuenta algo sobre su capacidad de adaptación. Seguir el destino de la glucosa nos ha permitido adentrarnos en dicho proceso y comprender por qué un valor medido en la sangre es solo una parte de la historia.

Glucemia e insulina en la respuesta a la comida

Del alimento hemos pasado a la respuesta que la comida produce en el organismo. La glucosa absorbida llega a la sangre, mientras el páncreas y los tejidos coordinan su utilización. La glucemia describe un resultado de este trabajo: para interpretarla es necesario considerar los procesos que la han determinado. La cantidad de carbohidratos, la estructura de los alimentos, la fibra, el procesamiento y la composición de la comida contribuyen conjuntamente a la velocidad con la que la glucosa se vuelve disponible.

En este marco hemos conocido el índice y la carga glucémica. El primero ayuda a comparar la respuesta a diferentes fuentes de carbohidratos; el segundo introduce también la cantidad consumida. Son herramientas de lectura que deben insertarse en el contexto de la comida y de las características individuales. De hecho, las proteínas, las grasas y la fibra modifican la digestión, la absorción y la respuesta hormonal, haciendo insuficiente la evaluación de un alimento a través de un único número.

La insulina también requiere la misma atención. Su secreción responde a la glucosa, pero integra señales adicionales, entre ellas aminoácidos y hormonas intestinales. El Food Insulin Index nos ha ayudado a reconocer que una respuesta insulínica no coincide automáticamente con la glucémica. Además, antes de alcanzar plenamente la circulación periférica, la insulina atraviesa el hígado, que elimina una parte. La concentración medida depende, por tanto, tanto de la producción pancreática como del aclaramiento, es decir, de la eliminación de la hormona.

Esta distinción ha ampliado también el significado de los análisis. La glucemia en ayunas fotografía una condición basal; la hemoglobina glucosilada ofrece información sobre la exposición media a la glucosa; la prueba de tolerancia a la glucosa observa la respuesta a un estímulo definido. En el capítulo, la atención a la glucemia a la hora nos ha mostrado cómo algunas señales de dificultad pueden aparecer antes que las alteraciones más evidentes. Sin embargo, ninguno de estos datos, considerado de forma aislada, explica el funcionamiento metabólico completo.

La conclusión es una invitación a leer el metabolismo a lo largo del tiempo. Una glucemia aparentemente conservada puede estar sostenida por un esfuerzo creciente de los sistemas reguladores. Comprender esta posibilidad permite valorar la prevención y la evaluación integral de la persona. El siguiente paso ha sido, por tanto, observar qué sucede cuando las oscilaciones aumentan y la colaboración entre el páncreas, el hígado y los tejidos comienza a perder eficiencia.

Variabilidad glucémica y alteraciones que preceden a la diabetes

Seguir la glucosa a lo largo del tiempo nos ha permitido reconocer una dimensión que la medición aislada deja oculta: la variabilidad glucémica. La glucosa oscila fisiológicamente, pero la amplitud y la frecuencia de las excursiones pueden cambiar a lo largo del camino hacia la prediabetes y la diabetes. El monitoreo continuo y sus indicadores han hecho observables estas tendencias, mostrando cómo un promedio similar puede acompañarse de perfiles diarios diferentes.

Las investigaciones examinadas vinculan una mayor inestabilidad glucémica con el estrés oxidativo, la inflamación y las alteraciones vasculares. Los modelos experimentales muestran, además, cómo la exposición intermitente a concentraciones elevadas de glucosa puede dañar las células β pancreáticas. Estas observaciones nos han ayudado a comprender un posible circuito: la dificultad para regular la glucosa puede aumentar la carga sobre las células que participan precisamente en su regulación.

La función pancreática debe interpretarse, por tanto, en relación con las necesidades de los tejidos. Una cantidad elevada de insulina no garantiza una respuesta adecuada si la sensibilidad a la hormona está reducida. Por la misma razón, la concentración circulante no describe por sí sola cuánto está produciendo el páncreas. El hígado, a través del aclaramiento de insulina, modifica la exposición del organismo a la hormona; una reducción del mismo puede contribuir a la hiperinsulinemia incluso sin un aumento equivalente de la secreción.

Es aquí donde hemos profundizado en uno de los temas centrales de la obra: la relación bidireccional entre hiperinsulinemia e insulino-resistencia. La resistencia puede inducir una respuesta compensatoria del páncreas; en algunos contextos, una exposición insulínica elevada y persistente puede, a su vez, contribuir a la desensibilización de los tejidos. La secreción, la eliminación y la respuesta celular se influyen mutuamente, con un peso que varía entre personas y fases de la disfunción metabólica.

Esta lectura hace más comprensible la gradualidad del deterioro. La aparición de la hiperglucemia manifiesta puede estar precedida por años de adaptaciones, durante los cuales el sistema mantiene algunos resultados al precio de un creciente desequilibrio. El interés por tales etapas radica en la posibilidad de reconocer precozmente una trayectoria desfavorable mediante una evaluación adecuada. Para entender cómo una señal puede perder eficacia progresivamente, nos adentramos entonces en la célula, siguiendo las proteínas que traducen el mensaje de la insulina en acción.

La señalización de la insulina y la capacidad de adaptación celular

Adentrarse en la vía de la insulina ha significado observar lo que ocurre tras la unión de la hormona a su receptor. IRS1 e IRS2 participan en la transmisión del mensaje, PI3K sostiene su propagación y AKT contribuye a transformarlo en respuestas metabólicas y de supervivencia. La disponibilidad de nutrientes se convierte así en una información capaz de orientar el uso de la glucosa, la síntesis y la conservación de los recursos.

El recorrido llega entonces al sistema TSC1/TSC2 y a mTOR, uno de los principales puntos de integración entre energía, nutrientes y señales de crecimiento. Hemos distinguido entre mTORC1 y mTORC2, complejos con funciones diferentes e interconectadas. El primero participa en el control de la síntesis y de la autofagia; el segundo contribuye, entre otras funciones, a la regulación de AKT. Esta distinción es necesaria para entender por qué modificar mTOR puede tener consecuencias diferentes según el contexto.

Cuando mTORC1 está estimulado de forma persistente, el circuito que involucra a S6K1 puede atenuar la señal ascendente, interfiriendo con IRS. Un sistema de control fisiológico puede así participar en la reducción de la respuesta insulínica. Por otra parte, comprometer funciones necesarias de mTOR también puede alterar el metabolismo. El mensaje que ha surgido es, por tanto, la necesidad de preservar una regulación apropiada: el crecimiento, la reparación y la renovación requieren tiempos y condiciones diferentes.

En esta red hemos encontrado a HIF-1α y REDD1. El primero conecta las señales metabólicas con la adaptación celular, sobre todo en relación con la oxigenación; el segundo participa en la respuesta al estrés y puede contener a mTORC1 a través del sistema TSC. Estos reguladores muestran cómo la célula integra información que llega desde múltiples direcciones. La alimentación es una de ellas, junto con el estado energético y las condiciones del tejido.

El valor de esta etapa no consiste en memorizar todas las siglas. Consiste en reconocer que la respuesta insulínica depende de una comunicación distribuida y regulada, cuya eficacia puede cambiar con el tiempo. La insulina mantiene un papel indispensable; comprender sus excesos y sus alteraciones significa proteger la calidad de su señal. De aquí hemos pasado a una consecuencia más amplia: los mismos circuitos que orientan el metabolismo pueden dialogar con aquellos que sostienen la inflamación.

El diálogo entre metabolismo e inflamación

La conexión con la inflamación nos ha llevado más allá de la distribución de la energía. Hemos observado cómo una estimulación metabólica persistente puede influir en la disponibilidad de sustancias utilizadas para producir mediadores inflamatorios. Desde esta perspectiva, la hiperinsulinemia representa uno de los posibles elementos de un entorno biológico alterado, capaz de entrelazarse con los procesos a través de los cuales las células comunican un daño o un estado de activación.

El recorrido descrito parte del metabolismo de los lípidos. A través de SREBP-1c y las enzimas desaturasas, la señal insulínica puede contribuir a modificar la producción de ácido araquidónico. Este ácido graso pertenece a la fisiología normal de las membranas y constituye el precursor de diversos mediadores. Su presencia se vuelve relevante para la cascada inflamatoria cuando otras señales permiten su liberación y utilización.

Hemos seguido este segundo paso a través de MAPK/ERK, el calcio intracelular y la cPLA2α, la enzima que puede liberar el ácido araquidónico de los fosfolípidos de membrana. Posteriormente, la COX-2 participa en la producción de prostaglandina E2. En los contextos descritos, la señal de la prostaglandina, mediada por el receptor EP4, puede comunicarse con el EGFR y volver a involucrar a PI3K, AKT y mTOR. El metabolismo lipídico y la señalización del crecimiento pueden, por tanto, insertarse en circuitos de influencia recíproca.

Esta secuencia nos ha permitido atribuir un significado concreto a la expresión inflamación metabólica. Una modificación en la utilización de los nutrientes puede contribuir a cambiar los mensajes recibidos por las células vecinas, con efectos en el entorno del tejido. La reconstrucción de un mecanismo muestra una posibilidad biológica; su relevancia efectiva depende de la intensidad del estímulo, de la duración y de las otras condiciones presentes en el organismo.

La atención se ha desplazado entonces de los mediadores a las células que los producen y los interpretan. El macrófago puede atraer otras defensas, liberar citocinas e influir en la reparación. Un fenómeno intracelular adquiere así una dimensión colectiva, involucrando tejidos y órganos. Para comprender cómo se inicia, amplifica y finalmente contiene una respuesta, se ha vuelto necesario conocer el sistema inmunitario y los mecanismos energéticos que sostienen sus diversas funciones.

Las defensas inmunitarias y su equilibrio metabólico

Con el sistema inmunitario hemos conocido una red capaz de reconocer amenazas, organizar respuestas y limitar los daños a los tejidos. La inmunidad innata ofrece una primera capacidad de intervención, mientras que la adaptativa desarrolla respuestas más específicas a través de los linfocitos T y B. La colaboración entre estos sistemas requiere comunicación, energía y control: activarse es necesario, pero también lo es interrumpir una respuesta cuando ha cumplido su función.

Las células inmunitarias adaptan el metabolismo a la tarea que deben realizar. Los programas inflamatorios a menudo se acompañan de un mayor recurso a la glucólisis, mientras que algunas funciones reguladoras y reparadoras dependen más del metabolismo oxidativo. Las descripciones de los macrófagos como M1 y M2 nos han ayudado a orientar esta distinción, aunque representan simplificaciones de comportamientos celulares más variables. De esta relación entre función y energía nace el inmunometabolismo.

mTOR y AMPK participan en la coordinación de dichos programas. mTORC1 sostiene procesos necesarios para la activación y el crecimiento de las células efectoras; AMPK contribuye a la adaptación energética y puede limitar actividades anabólicas costosas. HIF-1α vincula parte de esta señalización con la glucólisis y la diferenciación inmunitaria. Las mismas proteínas que ya encontramos en el metabolismo adquieren así un significado adicional: contribuyen a orientar la forma en que las defensas utilizan sus recursos.

La relación entre las células Th17 y Treg ha hecho particularmente evidente esta conexión. Las primeras participan en respuestas inflamatorias; las segundas ayudan a mantener la tolerancia hacia el organismo. FOXP3 es esencial para la identidad y la función reguladora de las Treg. Las investigaciones sobre rapamicina, glucocorticoides y vitamina D han mostrado que intervenir en las señales metabólicas puede modificar estos equilibrios, con efectos dependientes de las células y de las condiciones estudiadas.

Hemos comprendido, por tanto, que una defensa eficaz requiere proporción, duración y capacidad de regulación. Potenciar indiscriminadamente la inmunidad no describe un objetivo biológico suficiente; es necesario preservar la respuesta apropiada al contexto. Esta conciencia nos ha preparado para analizar las enfermedades autoinmunes, en las que la tolerancia puede deteriorarse y la activación inmunitaria contribuir al daño. La primera etapa de este paso nos ha llevado a las articulaciones, donde la artritis reumatoide hace tangible el diálogo entre inflamación y metabolismo.

Artritis reumatoide y metabolismo de la respuesta articular

En la artritis reumatoide, la vía molecular se ha encontrado con una enfermedad que puede afectar profundamente al movimiento, al dolor y a la vida cotidiana. La inflamación articular involucra a células inmunitarias y tejidos sinoviales, dentro de un proceso autoinmune complejo. Observarla a través del inmunometabolismo nos ha permitido ampliar la comprensión de lo que sostiene la respuesta inflamatoria, manteniendo en el centro a la persona y las consecuencias concretas de la enfermedad.

El primer elemento que ha surgido se refiere al equilibrio entre las poblaciones linfocitarias. Las Th17 y sus mediadores pueden contribuir a la inflamación, mientras que las Treg participan en su contención. Asimismo, las relaciones entre las Tfh, Tfr y los linfocitos B ayudan a comprender la producción de autoanticuerpos. Cuando estos sistemas no se coordinan adecuadamente, la respuesta puede mantenerse en el tiempo e involucrar progresivamente al entorno articular.

Las investigaciones consideradas también han documentado alteraciones de la sensibilidad a la insulina, presentes en algunos pacientes ya en las fases precoces y que no pueden explicarse únicamente por los tratamientos con glucocorticoides. Este dato sugiere una interacción continua entre la actividad inflamatoria y el metabolismo.

mTOR representa uno de los puntos en los que estos aspectos pueden converger. Su actividad participa en los programas de las células efectoras, en la proliferación sinovial y en la angiogénesis. A través de HIF-1α y la glucólisis, las señales de crecimiento pueden sostener las necesidades energéticas de las células involucradas. Los estudios sobre los inhibidores de mTOR muestran el interés de esta conexión como objetivo de investigación. También se ha examinado la vitamina D por su relación con la tolerancia inmunitaria y la actividad de la enfermedad.

La lección que conservamos se refiere a la amplitud de la mirada. El control de la enfermedad requiere tratamientos específicos, mientras que la salud metabólica constituye una dimensión relevante de la atención integral. Conocer estas relaciones ayuda a comprender por qué órganos y sistemas aparentemente distantes pueden influirse entre sí. De la articulación hemos pasado, por tanto, a la piel: en la psoriasis, una manifestación inmediatamente visible nos ha mostrado una vez más procesos que se extienden más allá del tejido en el que aparecen.

Psoriasis y señales que atraviesan la piel

La psoriasis nos ha enseñado a mirar más allá de la superficie. Las manifestaciones cutáneas hacen visible una afección en la que la proliferación de los queratinocitos, la actividad inmunitaria y los mediadores inflamatorios se influyen mutuamente. La piel se convierte así en el lugar donde podemos observar los efectos de una comunicación biológica alterada, sin que las dimensiones de una lesión describan por sí solas la complejidad de la persona que la presenta.

La atención a las células Th17, a la IL-17 y a otros mediadores nos ha devuelto a la relación entre la respuesta efectora y el control regulador. Las Treg pueden resultar menos eficaces o perder estabilidad en el entorno inflamatorio. Mientras tanto, los queratinocitos participan activamente en el proceso, modificando el crecimiento y la comunicación con las defensas. La persistencia de la inflamación depende, por tanto, de múltiples protagonistas que contribuyen a mantener el microambiente cutáneo alterado.

A esta dimensión se suma la metabólica. En los estudios examinados, se ha observado hiperinsulinemia y una reducida sensibilidad a la insulina incluso en personas sin diabetes manifiesta y, en algunos casos, sin obesidad. Este dato invita a considerar afecciones que pueden pasar desapercibidas si solo se observa la glucemia o el peso. Las asociaciones cardiovasculares y metabólicas refuerzan la importancia de una evaluación integral, más allá del tratamiento de las manifestaciones cutáneas.

En el tejido psoriásico hemos encontrado PI3K/AKT/mTOR y HIF-1α. Estas señales pueden sustentar el metabolismo glucolítico necesario para la proliferación epidérmica y la actividad de ciertas células inmunitarias. Las investigaciones sobre su modulación muestran cómo el control del crecimiento y el de la inflamación pueden compartir dianas. La vitamina D añade otro vínculo, a través de la regulación de la diferenciación cutánea y de la inmunidad.

Esta etapa nos ha acercado a una conciencia concreta: cuidar la salud significa considerar también lo que no es inmediatamente visible. La enfermedad no define a la persona ni autoriza juicios sobre sus hábitos. Ofrece, en cambio, un motivo para integrar los conocimientos e identificar necesidades diferentes. Esta misma mirada se vuelve aún más necesaria cuando la autoinmunidad puede afectar a órganos distintos, como hemos visto en el lupus eritematoso sistémico.

Lupus y complejidad de la tolerancia inmunitaria

En el lupus eritematoso sistémico hemos encontrado una pérdida de la tolerancia capaz de afectar a diferentes órganos y de manifestarse con cuadros clínicos muy variables. Esta diversidad nos ha recordado lo importante que es conservar una visión de conjunto. Los autoanticuerpos y la activación de los linfocitos B representan una parte del proceso, insertada en una red de relaciones entre defensas, tejidos y señales metabólicas.

Los equilibrios entre Tfh y Tfr, así como los que existen entre Th17 y Treg, han mostrado la importancia de los sistemas que coordinan y contienen la respuesta. Cuando prevalecen ciertos programas efectores y la regulación se vuelve insuficiente, puede aumentar la capacidad de mantener la inflamación. El metabolismo acompaña estos cambios: la glucólisis, el uso de la glutamina y la actividad mitocondrial contribuyen a proporcionar los recursos necesarios a las distintas poblaciones celulares.

Las alteraciones insulínicas descritas en los estudios han ampliado aún más el panorama. Una sensibilidad reducida a la insulina puede estar presente incluso con glucemia normal y en fases clínicamente poco activas. Su observación en diferentes poblaciones sugiere que la interacción metabólica merece atención, sin reducirla automáticamente a un único fármaco o a una sola característica de la enfermedad. También aquí, la dirección de las relaciones requiere una lectura prudente y contextual.

mTOR y HIF-1α nos han ofrecido un vínculo entre estos niveles. Su actividad puede sustentar programas glucolíticos y respuestas efectoras, mientras que las alteraciones de la autofagia y de las mitocondrias contribuyen al cuadro celular. Los estudios sobre el sirolimus han mostrado cómo algunas de estas conexiones pueden convertirse en objeto de investigación terapéutica. La vitamina D ha sido considerada por su relación con el estado inmunitario y con el equilibrio entre poblaciones reguladoras y efectoras.

El valor de esta etapa consiste en habernos acercado a una enfermedad compleja conservando la distinción entre mecanismos compartidos y características individuales. Una red común ayuda a formular preguntas y a interpretar observaciones; la elección de los tratamientos requiere pruebas y evaluaciones específicas. Con esta atención hemos pasado a otro entorno en el que la tolerancia es indispensable cada día: el intestino, que debe conciliar el contacto con el mundo exterior, la absorción de los nutrientes y la protección del organismo.

Intestino y mantenimiento de la barrera inmunitaria

En las enfermedades inflamatorias intestinales, la relación entre defensa y tolerancia adquiere un significado inmediato. La mucosa intestinal participa en la absorción y, al mismo tiempo, constituye una interfaz con el entorno externo. La enfermedad de Crohn y la colitis ulcerosa presentan diferencias importantes, pero comparten una respuesta inflamatoria persistente o recurrente que puede afectar profundamente la calidad de vida y el estado nutricional.

El recorrido ha destacado el papel de las poblaciones Th17 y Treg, junto con el de los macrófagos y las células epiteliales. El problema radica en la capacidad de mantener una respuesta proporcionada, protegiendo el tejido mientras se enfrentan los estímulos. La actividad inmunitaria requiere energía, y los programas metabólicos contribuyen a orientarla. Por ello, la barrera y las defensas no pueden entenderse separándolas de las condiciones energéticas de las células.

Las asociaciones entre indicadores metabólicos, como el índice TyG, y el riesgo de enfermedad han abierto una perspectiva adicional. Estos datos sugieren posibles vínculos entre la disfunción metabólica y la inflamación intestinal, ayudándonos a reconocer que la salud intestinal se integra en el marco del organismo completo, con influencias que pueden proceder en ambas direcciones.

Hemos encontrado a mTOR y HIF-1α en los programas que sostienen la glucólisis y la actividad inflamatoria. En los modelos examinados, la modulación de estas vías puede modificar las poblaciones inmunitarias, la autofagia y la integridad de la barrera. Los estudios con inhibidores de mTOR y compuestos naturales han proporcionado indicaciones de investigación, mientras que las observaciones sobre la vitamina D han llamado la atención sobre el estado nutricional y la regulación inmunitaria. La función de cada señal sigue estando ligada al tipo de célula y al contexto.

De esta etapa emerge el valor de un cuidado que considere la inflamación, la nutrición y las condiciones generales en conjunto. La comprensión biológica aclara por qué un problema intestinal puede tener consecuencias que van más allá del aparato digestivo. El mismo diálogo entre inmunidad y metabolismo se encuentra en tejidos con necesidades muy diferentes. En el capítulo siguiente lo hemos seguido hasta el sistema nervioso, donde la esclerosis múltiple pone en primer plano la protección y la reparación de la mielina.

Esclerosis múltiple y protección del sistema nervioso

En la esclerosis múltiple, la atención se ha desplazado hacia un tejido en el que la comunicación requiere una organización particularmente delicada. La afectación autoinmunitaria de la mielina se acompaña de procesos inflamatorios que pueden alterar la función neurológica. Comprender su componente metabólico nos ha permitido añadir a la descripción del daño una pregunta adicional: ¿qué recursos y qué señales sostienen a las células que lo favorecen y a las que intentan repararlo?

Las investigaciones sobre las células Treg han puesto de manifiesto el papel de la tolerancia, mientras que las Th1, Th17 y las relaciones entre los linfocitos T y B han mostrado diferentes contribuciones a la respuesta autoinmunitaria. La microglía, parte de las defensas del sistema nervioso, también participa en la construcción del entorno inflamatorio. El metabolismo de las distintas poblaciones se vuelve así relevante para comprender cómo se activan y cómo mantienen su función en el tejido.

En los estudios examinados, se han observado alteraciones de la sensibilidad a la insulina y respuestas insulínicas aumentadas incluso en las fases iniciales de la enfermedad. La conexión con marcadores inflamatorios y la discapacidad sugiere un vínculo que merece atención. La presencia de estas relaciones amplía la evaluación de la persona, sin permitir reducir la esclerosis múltiple a una sola alteración metabólica ni deducir automáticamente una intervención resolutiva.

La distinción más importante que ha surgido se refiere a mTOR. En algunos compartimentos inmunitarios, su actividad puede sostener programas patógenos; en los oligodendrocitos, en cambio, contribuye a funciones necesarias para la mielinización. HIF-1α y la glucólisis completan la conexión con las respuestas efectoras. Por tanto, los experimentos de modulación de la vía deben interpretarse teniendo en cuenta diferentes células, tiempos y objetivos. La vitamina D también entra en esta red, con asociaciones y resultados que deben leerse según el nivel de evidencia.

Esta etapa deja particularmente claro un principio de todo el libro: una misma proteína puede participar tanto en la disfunción como en la recuperación, según el contexto en el que opere. La salud requiere coordinación entre defensa y reparación. Tras observar esta necesidad en el sistema nervioso, hemos seguido la relación entre autoinmunidad y metabolismo en una glándula que contribuye a regular la actividad del organismo: la tiroides, protagonista de la siguiente reflexión sobre la enfermedad de Hashimoto.

Hashimoto y la relación entre la inmunidad y la función tiroidea

La tiroiditis de Hashimoto nos ha permitido observar el encuentro entre el sistema inmunitario y la regulación endocrina. La pérdida de tolerancia hacia los componentes de la tiroides puede acompañarse de un daño progresivo de la glándula, con consecuencias que dependen de la función residual y del curso individual. Seguir este proceso nos ha ayudado a comprender por qué la evaluación de una enfermedad autoinmune endocrina debe considerar varios niveles simultáneamente.

Hemos encontrado el desequilibrio entre Th17 y Treg y el papel de las poblaciones reguladoras en la contención de la respuesta. Dentro del tejido, el estrés oxidativo, la autofagia y las señales de crecimiento pueden influir en la capacidad de las células para mantenerse funcionales. La autoinmunidad implica, por tanto, un diálogo entre las defensas y las condiciones de las células diana, que a su vez participan en el entorno en el que se desarrolla la respuesta.

Las observaciones sobre la resistencia a la insulina han añadido una dimensión metabólica. En los estudios considerados, la reducción de la sensibilidad a la insulina se ha documentado incluso en personas con función tiroidea conservada. Esta asociación sugiere que la autoinmunidad y el metabolismo pueden interactuar más allá de los efectos de las variaciones hormonales. El peso de los diferentes factores sigue siendo individual y requiere una lectura integral, en la que tienen cabida la adiposidad visceral y otras condiciones concomitantes.

A nivel molecular, PI3K/AKT/mTOR y HIF-1α conectan el crecimiento, la autofagia y los programas energéticos de las células inmunitarias. Los resultados experimentales con rapamicina y otros compuestos muestran cómo la modulación de estas señales puede reducir algunos aspectos del daño en los modelos estudiados. La vitamina D ha sido analizada por sus efectos sobre los autoanticuerpos y la regulación inmunitaria. Dichas observaciones enriquecen la comprensión biológica, manteniendo distintos los resultados preclínicos de las terapias consolidadas.

El mensaje que queda se refiere a la posibilidad de reconocer necesidades complementarias: preservar la función endocrina, seguir el proceso autoinmune y considerar el estado metabólico y nutricional. El conocimiento de las conexiones ayuda a evitar una lectura fragmentada de los análisis y los síntomas. De esta glándula hemos pasado al páncreas, donde la pérdida de la tolerancia afecta precisamente a las células productoras de la hormona que nos ha acompañado desde el principio: la insulina, indispensable para comprender la diabetes de tipo 1.

Diabetes tipo 1 y pérdida de células pancreáticas

En la diabetes tipo 1, el vínculo entre inmunidad y metabolismo se vuelve particularmente evidente. La respuesta autoinmunitaria daña las células β pancreáticas, reduciendo progresivamente la capacidad de producir insulina. La hormona, a la que hemos seguido como señal metabólica, adquiere aquí el significado concreto de una función que debe ser sustituida cuando falta. Esta característica distingue a la enfermedad y hace esencial conservar su especificidad a lo largo de toda la reflexión.

El recorrido ha mostrado que la tolerancia depende de la función de las Treg, además de su número. Una regulación insuficiente puede dejar espacio a las poblaciones autorreactivas, incluidas aquellas que participan en la respuesta contra las células pancreáticas. Las investigaciones sobre la expansión o la transferencia de las Treg han ilustrado el interés hacia estrategias capaces de recuperar un control más selectivo de la respuesta inmunitaria.

La sensibilidad a la insulina también puede modificar el cuadro. En algunos sujetos en riesgo y en personas con la enfermedad ya establecida, se ha observado una eficacia reducida de la insulina disponible. Este elemento puede aumentar la complejidad metabólica sin sustituir el papel central de la pérdida autoinmunitaria de las células β. La disponibilidad de la hormona y la respuesta de los tejidos son dimensiones diferentes que pueden influirse mutuamente al determinar el control glucémico.

mTOR, HIF-1α y la glucólisis participan en los programas energéticos de las células efectoras, mientras que AMPK y la autofagia han sido examinados también en relación con la resiliencia de las células pancreáticas. Los estudios sobre la rapamicina han puesto de manifiesto las oportunidades y los límites de una modulación que debe respetar funciones diversas. La vitamina D ha sido considerada por sus posibles relaciones con la tolerancia y el metabolismo, sin que dichos resultados modifiquen la necesidad de la terapia con insulina cuando está indicada.

La lección de este capítulo es, por tanto, doble: reconocer los mecanismos compartidos y proteger las diferencias clínicas. El cuidado metabólico acompaña a una enfermedad cuyo origen autoinmunitario puede atribuirse también a una elección alimentaria. Comprender este paso permite abordar con mayor precisión el siguiente. En la diabetes tipo 2, de hecho, la pérdida de la función pancreática se inserta en una historia diferente, en la cual la sensibilidad de los tejidos, la secreción y el aclaramiento de la insulina asumen relaciones características.

Diabetes de tipo 2 y deterioro metabólico progresivo

La diabetes tipo 2 nos ha devuelto a las señales tempranas encontradas al principio de la obra, mostrando cómo pueden insertarse en un proceso largo y articulado. El aumento de la glucemia representa un elemento central del diagnóstico, pero la enfermedad implica la interacción entre el páncreas, el hígado, el músculo y el tejido adiposo. Con el tiempo, puede acompañarse de complicaciones que afectan a numerosos órganos, haciendo evidente la dimensión sistémica del desequilibrio metabólico.

Las excursiones posprandiales y la variabilidad glucémica pueden aumentar antes de la hiperglucemia más estable. La composición de las comidas influye en estas respuestas y ofrece uno de los puntos sobre los cuales intervenir. Los estudios sobre estrategias alimentarias con bajo contenido de carbohidratos han mostrado posibles beneficios en el control glucémico, que deben interpretarse junto con la calidad de los alimentos, la adherencia y las necesidades individuales. El valor de una estrategia se mide también en la posibilidad de mantenerla adecuadamente a lo largo del tiempo.

El deterioro de las células β comprende alteraciones de la respuesta insulínica temprana y de la capacidad de compensar las demandas del organismo. Paralelamente, una reducción del aclaramiento puede aumentar la exposición a la insulina. La hiperinsulinemia y la insulino-resistencia pueden así contribuir a circuitos de refuerzo mutuo. Existe, por tanto, una relación dinámica entre la producción, la eliminación y la eficacia de la hormona.

Dentro de la célula, la retroalimentación de mTORC1 y S6K1 sobre IRS ayuda a comprender uno de los mecanismos que pueden reducir la calidad de la señal. AMPK, por otro lado, evoca la capacidad de adaptarse a la demanda energética y de sostener la utilización de los recursos. Cuando el desequilibrio persiste, el estrés oxidativo, la glucotoxicidad, la lipotoxicidad y las dificultades mitocondriales pueden converger en el páncreas, reduciendo su capacidad funcional.

El significado preventivo de esta reconstrucción es reconocer que el curso metabólico se desarrolla con el tiempo y puede abordarse mediante intervenciones nutricionales apropiadas en las diferentes fases. Un diagnóstico requiere cuidados; las señales que lo preceden merecen atención y evaluación. Esta visión nos ha llevado después más allá del metabolismo periférico, hacia un órgano que depende continuamente de la disponibilidad de energía: el cerebro. En el Alzheimer hemos observado cómo la señalización insulínica, la utilización de la glucosa y el mantenimiento celular pueden entrelazarse con el deterioro neurológico.

Alzheimer y fragilidad del metabolismo cerebral

En el capítulo dedicado al Alzheimer, hemos ampliado la perspectiva sobre la neurodegeneración, añadiendo al problema de la acumulación de beta-amiloide y tau el del equilibrio energético del cerebro. Las neuronas deben mantener la comunicación, la integridad y la renovación de sus propios componentes. Cuando estas funciones pierden su coordinación, las alteraciones pueden influirse mutuamente, contribuyendo a la vulnerabilidad progresiva de las redes que sostienen la memoria y las capacidades cognitivas.

La respuesta cerebral reducida a la insulina se ha examinado como parte de este cuadro y puede observarse incluso en ausencia de diabetes. Los modelos descritos vinculan la señal de insulina con la gestión de la beta-amiloide, el procesamiento de proteínas y la autofagia. La enzima IDE, implicada en la degradación tanto de la insulina como de la beta-amiloide, introduce otro posible punto de interacción, cuya relevancia depende del contexto biológico.

mTOR participa en funciones necesarias para la plasticidad sináptica y la memoria. Sin embargo, una regulación alterada de esta puede acompañarse de una menor capacidad de renovación y de la acumulación de componentes dañinos. Asimismo, la retroalimentación sobre IRS y la regulación de AKT y GSK3β ayudan a reconstruir posibles conexiones con las modificaciones de la tau. La comprensión de estos mecanismos requiere preservar el papel fisiológico de las mismas proteínas implicadas en la disfunción.

También hemos seguido el rastro del glutamato, cuya comunicación debe controlarse para evitar una excitación excesiva. Las alteraciones en su liberación y eliminación pueden agravar el estrés neuronal. Mientras tanto, las dificultades mitocondriales y las modificaciones de los transportadores GLUT1 y GLUT3 pueden reducir la disponibilidad efectiva de energía. HIF-1α entra en esta red como regulador de las respuestas metabólicas, mostrando una vez más efectos vinculados al tejido y a las condiciones consideradas.

El capítulo nos ha ofrecido, por tanto, una lectura en la que las proteínas, las señales y el metabolismo participan en el mismo problema biológico. Las asociaciones metabólicas no equivalen a una explicación única del Alzheimer, pero contribuyen a comprender su complejidad. De un tejido que lucha por mantener sus funciones, hemos pasado a células capaces de reorganizar los recursos para sostener un crecimiento patológico. Es este cambio de perspectiva el que nos ha introducido en el metabolismo de los tumores.

Tumores y organización del microambiente metabólico

En los tumores hemos observado cómo una célula puede modificar el uso de los recursos y la comunicación con el entorno circundante. Las alteraciones genéticas conservan un papel esencial, mientras que el metabolismo, las señales de crecimiento y las interacciones con otras células contribuyen a la complejidad del proceso. La perspectiva de la obra nos ha llevado a seguir estas conexiones, distinguiendo lo que sustenta una posibilidad biológica de lo que demuestra un beneficio terapéutico.

La insulina también transmite señales de crecimiento y supervivencia. Las asociaciones epidemiológicas entre hiperinsulinemia, resistencia a la insulina y algunas condiciones oncológicas han planteado una pregunta sobre el contexto metabólico en el que se desarrollan las neoplasias. A través de PI3K, AKT y mTOR, dichas señales pueden interactuar con programas de síntesis y proliferación. Sin embargo, su significado depende de las características del tumor y de las alteraciones presentes en las células.

El crecimiento requiere materiales además de energía. El efecto Warburg describe el recurso acentuado a la glucólisis, incluso cuando hay oxígeno disponible, observado en muchas células neoplásicas. HIF-1α contribuye a la adaptación a las condiciones de oxigenación y a la regulación de transportadores y enzimas. La glucosa entra así en programas metabólicos que pueden sustentar la construcción de nuevos componentes celulares y la producción de lactato.

Precisamente el lactato ha ampliado nuestra comprensión. A través de MCT1 y MCT4 puede ser intercambiado entre células, convirtiéndose en un recurso en algunos compartimentos del tumor. Su actividad de señalización y los procesos de lactilación conectan el metabolismo y la regulación celular. Los fibroblastos asociados al tumor participan en estos intercambios: en el efecto Warburg inverso, algunas células del estroma proporcionan metabolitos utilizables por las células neoplásicas. El tejido tumoral aparece así como un entorno cooperativo y heterogéneo.

Esta organización interactúa con los sistemas que controlan el daño y la proliferación. p53 contribuye a la vigilancia celular; la relación entre AKT, MDM2 y p53 muestra cómo las señales de supervivencia pueden interferir con dicha protección. AMPK y TSC1/TSC2 añaden conexiones con el control de mTOR. El desarrollo del tumor depende, por tanto, también de la capacidad de las células alteradas para superar los límites normalmente impuestos al crecimiento.

El microambiente comprende además las defensas inmunitarias. La hipoxia, el lactato y la adenosina pueden favorecer condiciones que reducen la eficacia de la respuesta antitumoral. CD39 y CD73 participan en la producción de adenosina, mientras que sus receptores transmiten sus efectos. Los macrófagos y las células Treg pueden asumir funciones que, en este contexto, favorecen la tolerancia hacia el tumor. VEGF conecta, finalmente, la adaptación metabólica con la formación de nuevos vasos.

Esta etapa nos ha ayudado a comprender cómo un mismo mecanismo puede tener efectos diferentes según el contexto: frenar la respuesta inmunitaria puede proteger contra los daños de la autoinmunidad, pero también puede debilitar las defensas contra un tumor. Estudiar el metabolismo nos permite, por tanto, comprender mejor estos equilibrios y abre nuevas perspectivas de investigación. Siguiendo el hilo que une el metabolismo, los lípidos y la inflamación, hemos desplazado luego la atención de los vasos sanguíneos que alimentan el tumor a la pared de las arterias, para entender cómo estos factores contribuyen al desarrollo de la aterosclerosis.

Aterosclerosis y protección de la pared vascular

En la aterosclerosis hemos encontrado un proceso que puede desarrollarse lentamente, antes de que un evento cardiovascular lo haga evidente. La pared arterial participa activamente en la regulación del flujo, la comunicación inmunitaria y la gestión de los lípidos. El endotelio, el revestimiento interno de los vasos, constituye un punto de observación privilegiado para entender cómo la calidad de las señales metabólicas puede influir en la salud vascular.

En condiciones fisiológicas, la vía IRS/PI3K/AKT contribuye a activar la eNOS y a la producción de óxido nítrico. Esta molécula favorece la vasodilatación y sostiene funciones protectoras del endotelio. Cuando la señal insulínica pierde eficacia, dicha contribución puede reducirse. El capítulo nos ha recordado así que la insulina conserva acciones importantes para la fisiología de los vasos y que su concentración debe interpretarse junto con la respuesta de los tejidos.

La reducción de la protección endotelial se entrelaza con la inflamación y la adhesión de las células inmunitarias. Señales como NF-κB y VCAM-1 participan en el reclutamiento de los leucocitos, mientras que las lipoproteínas presentes en la pared pueden sufrir modificaciones oxidativas. Las LDL oxidadas son reconocidas por receptores como CD36, que favorecen su entrada en los macrófagos. La acumulación de lípidos contribuye a la formación de las células espumosas, componentes característicos de las lesiones ateroscleróticas.

CD36 nos ha mostrado cómo la captación y la señalización pueden proceder juntas. En los macrófagos contribuye a las respuestas inflamatorias y a la acumulación lipídica; en las plaquetas puede participar en el aumento de la reactividad a los estímulos. PI3K/AKT/mTOR y la autofagia añaden conexiones con la capacidad de las células para gestionar los lípidos. Estos procesos pertenecen a una red en la que el metabolismo insulínico, el estrés oxidativo y el entorno vascular pueden influirse mutuamente.

La reconstrucción ha hecho más concreta la idea de prevención a lo largo del tiempo. La salud de los vasos depende del conjunto de los factores de riesgo y de los cuidados apropiados, mientras que la dimensión metabólica ayuda a comprender algunas conexiones menos visibles. Tras haber seguido tales relaciones en las patologías, era necesario volver a la vida cotidiana. La alimentación, introducida al principio como punto de partida, ha reaparecido con un significado más amplio: una de las exposiciones repetidas a través de las cuales podemos contribuir a modificar el contexto biológico del organismo.

La calidad alimentaria en la prevención diaria

Volver a la alimentación después de haber analizado las diversas patologías nos ha permitido comprender mejor su papel como factor de riesgo. Cada comida determina respuestas glucémicas e insulínicas que, repetidas en el tiempo, pueden contribuir a modificar el equilibrio metabólico. La atención se ha centrado sobre todo en la cantidad y la calidad de los carbohidratos: los alimentos de rápida digestión y las porciones con una elevada carga glucémica pueden producir aumentos más marcados de la glucosa y una mayor demanda de insulina.

Las investigaciones examinadas han asociado un elevado índice glucémico, una alta carga glucémica y un mayor potencial insulinémico de la dieta con un aumento del riesgo de diabetes tipo 2 y, en diversas poblaciones, de la mortalidad general, cardiovascular y oncológica. Estos resultados sugieren que la calidad alimentaria merece atención más allá del control del peso. En el prediabetes, en particular, una carga glucémica elevada se ha asociado a una mayor probabilidad de progresión hacia la enfermedad.

El compromiso cardiovascular nos ha mostrado cómo las consecuencias pueden extenderse a los vasos sanguíneos. Las excursiones glucémicas repetidas pueden favorecer el estrés oxidativo, la inflamación y la disfunción endotelial, procesos que contribuyen a la vulnerabilidad de la pared arterial. Las asociaciones con cardiopatía coronaria, aterosclerosis e ictus se enmarcan en este contexto. También los estudios sobre demencia y Alzheimer han llamado la atención sobre la exposición glucémica alimentaria, sin demostrar que esta determine directamente la neurodegeneración.

En el ámbito oncológico, la hiperinsulinemia y las señales del eje PI3K/AKT/mTOR ofrecen posibles vínculos entre alimentación, crecimiento y supervivencia celular. En la autoinmunidad, en cambio, las alteraciones de la sensibilidad insulínica sugieren una interacción con la inflamación, pero no demuestran que reducir la carga glucémica prevenga estas enfermedades.

Los estudios de intervención han indicado, por tanto, algunas posibilidades concretas. Las dietas con menor índice y carga glucémica pueden mejorar la insulinemia, el HOMA-IR y algunos indicadores inflamatorios; las estrategias bajas en carbohidratos (low carb) pueden favorecer el control glucémico y mejorar los triglicéridos y la esteatosis hepática. Sin embargo, los efectos dependen de la calidad general de la dieta, de los alimentos sustitutivos y de la continuidad de la intervención.

El mensaje final se refiere, por tanto, a la capacidad de reducir las sobrecargas metabólicas desfavorables mediante porciones apropiadas, fuentes alimentarias de calidad y comidas adecuadas a las necesidades individuales. Comprender estas relaciones hace que las elecciones cotidianas sean más conscientes. Su efecto se entrelaza además con el uso de los nutrientes: de ahí el paso al movimiento, que aumenta la demanda energética de los músculos y contribuye a la regulación de la glucosa.

Movimiento y alternancia entre trabajo y recuperación

Tras haber observado cómo la alimentación influye en la disponibilidad de nutrientes, hemos profundizado en cómo el movimiento condiciona su utilización. El sedentarismo prolongado reduce la demanda energética de los músculos y puede favorecer alteraciones de la sensibilidad a la insulina. Los estudios examinados asocian la acumulación de horas sentado a un aumento de la mortalidad y del riesgo cardiovascular y metabólico, llamando la atención también sobre la duración de los periodos consecutivos de inmovilidad.

Este aspecto nos ha permitido distinguir el entrenamiento del movimiento distribuido a lo largo del día. Realizar actividad física es importante, pero pasar muchas horas consecutivas sentado puede mantener un componente de riesgo incluso en personas que se entrenan. Interrumpir la inmovilidad y sustituir una parte de ella por actividades ligeras representa, por tanto, una oportunidad concreta. Las investigaciones sobre los pasos diarios muestran beneficios ya desde el paso de la inactividad a cantidades relativamente modestas de movimiento, especialmente relevantes para personas mayores y frágiles.

La conexión con la resistencia a la insulina aclara el significado biológico de estas observaciones. Incluso periodos breves de marcada reducción de la actividad pueden empeorar la respuesta de los tejidos a la insulina. Por el contrario, el ejercicio aeróbico, el entrenamiento de resistencia y los programas combinados pueden mejorar la captación de glucosa, la función mitocondrial y los indicadores de sensibilidad a la insulina. Estos efectos pueden aparecer incluso sin una pérdida de peso significativa: el beneficio afecta directamente al funcionamiento del músculo.

Durante la contracción aumenta el consumo de ATP, la principal fuente de energía celular. AMPK contribuye a reconocer esta mayor demanda y favorece los procesos necesarios para satisfacerla, apoyando la utilización de ácidos grasos y la captación de glucosa a través de GLUT4. El movimiento modifica así la capacidad de las células para utilizar los nutrientes disponibles.

Esta respuesta se coordina con mTOR, implicado en la síntesis proteica, la reparación y la adaptación muscular. La relación entre ambas vías varía según el tipo de ejercicio, su intensidad y la fase de recuperación. También la autofagia y el recambio de las mitocondrias participan en las adaptaciones, contribuyendo al mantenimiento de la eficiencia celular.

La conclusión es, por tanto, concreta: reducir el tiempo sedentario, interrumpir las largas permanencias sentado y practicar actividad física adecuada a las propias condiciones son comportamientos complementarios. Su continuidad favorece la regulación de la glucosa y la funcionalidad muscular, ofreciendo beneficios que van más allá del consumo calórico. Junto a estos hábitos favorables, hemos examinado también una exposición capaz de comprometer el metabolismo y la salud vascular: el tabaquismo, cuyo impacto involucra incluso los circuitos que dificultan la interrupción de su consumo.

Tabaquismo y circuitos que mantienen la dependencia

Tras observar cómo el movimiento favorece la salud metabólica, hemos examinado una exposición capaz de comprometerla: el tabaquismo. Sus efectos alcanzan los pulmones, los vasos sanguíneos y los tejidos, involucrando también los circuitos cerebrales de la adicción. Las investigaciones analizadas muestran que incluso unas pocas cigarrillos al día aumentan el riesgo cardiovascular y la mortalidad. Por lo tanto, reducir el consumo no elimina el riesgo asociado a la exposición.

El daño se desarrolla a través de procesos que pueden reforzarse mutuamente. El estrés oxidativo y la inflamación comprometen la función del endotelio, mientras que el aumento de la reactividad plaquetaria favorece la formación de trombos. Paralelamente, las sustancias cancerígenas del tabaco pueden dañar el ADN. Dejar de fumar modifica progresivamente esta trayectoria, ofreciendo beneficios cardiovasculares, respiratorios y oncológicos incluso después de años de consumo.

La implicación metabólica nos ha llevado de nuevo a la señalización de la insulina. En los fumadores se ha documentado una menor sensibilidad a la insulina y alteraciones asociadas a la cantidad y duración de la exposición. La nicotina puede contribuir a estos efectos incluso independientemente de la combustión. En modelos experimentales, la modulación de mTOR y las alteraciones de IRS-1 ayudan a explicar cómo puede reducirse la eficacia de la respuesta insulínica, aumentando la necesidad de compensación del organismo.

Las mismas señales adquieren un significado adicional en los procesos tumorales. La nicotina y la NNK, una nitrosamina cancerígena del tabaco, pueden involucrar a los receptores nicotínicos y activar la vía PI3K/AKT/mTOR. En los modelos estudiados, esta vía favorece la proliferación, la angiogénesis y la resistencia a la muerte celular. La NNK puede, además, provocar alteraciones del ADN: el daño genético y las señales de supervivencia pueden converger así, favoreciendo la persistencia de las células alteradas.

Los cigarrillos electrónicos también requieren atención. La ausencia de combustión reduce la exposición a algunos tóxicos, pero no hace inocuos los aerosoles, que pueden contener nicotina, aldehídos, partículas ultrafinas y metales. Los diferentes productos presentan perfiles distintos y el uso combinado con cigarrillos tradicionales mantiene la exposición a los daños del tabaco.

La dificultad para interrumpir el consumo encuentra, finalmente, una explicación en los circuitos de la adicción. La nicotina aumenta la liberación de dopamina en los sistemas de recompensa; los procesos de plasticidad sináptica, en los que también participa mTOR, contribuyen a consolidar las asociaciones entre la sustancia, la gratificación y los hábitos.

Comprender estos mecanismos significa reconocer tanto el valor de la cesación como la necesidad de apoyar a quienes la afrontan. El conocimiento de los riesgos puede motivar, mientras que un proceso adecuado ayuda a mantener el cambio. A partir de aquí, pasamos al papel de las relaciones sociales, que pueden ofrecer un apoyo concreto para el cuidado de la salud y la gestión de las dificultades.

Relaciones sociales y respuestas biológicas a la soledad

Tras haber examinado el tabaquismo y las dificultades relacionadas con la adicción, hemos profundizado en otro factor que puede influir en la salud: la carencia de relaciones significativas. Los estudios analizados asocian el aislamiento social y la soledad persistente con un aumento de la mortalidad y del riesgo cardiovascular. La calidad de los vínculos adquiere, por tanto, un valor concreto, ya que puede condicionar tanto los comportamientos cotidianos como los sistemas biológicos a través de los cuales afrontamos el estrés.

La perspectiva evolutiva nos ha ayudado a comprender esta relación. La cooperación, el intercambio de recursos y el aprendizaje social han sustentado la supervivencia humana. Incluso hoy en día, poder contar con los demás facilita la gestión de las dificultades y el cuidado personal. Las observaciones sobre el aislamiento durante la infancia y la adolescencia sugieren, además, que la vulnerabilidad puede comenzar de forma temprana, asociándose a una mayor inflamación y a alteraciones cardiometabólicas en los años posteriores.

Una parte del riesgo se transmite a través de los hábitos. El aislamiento puede ir acompañado de una alimentación menos adecuada, carencias nutricionales, mayor consumo de tabaco, menor actividad física y dificultades para seguir los tratamientos. Estas condiciones pueden acumularse y reforzarse mutuamente. El apoyo social, en cambio, puede hacer que los cambios sean más viables y favorecer su continuidad. Lo que cuenta, sobre todo, es la calidad de las relaciones: tener numerosos contactos no garantiza sentirse escuchado, comprendido o apoyado.

El vínculo se extiende también al metabolismo. Las investigaciones examinadas asocian la soledad y el escaso apoyo social con la resistencia a la insulina y alteraciones de la regulación glucémica. Una posible explicación involucra al eje hipotálamo-hipófisis-adrenal: la soledad persistente puede ir acompañada de modificaciones en la respuesta al estrés y en los ritmos del cortisol, influyendo en la disponibilidad y el uso de la energía.

A nivel celular, de hecho, los glucocorticoides pueden inducir REDD1, que a través de TSC1/TSC2 contribuye a contener la actividad de mTORC1. Esta respuesta limita temporalmente procesos costosos, como la síntesis proteica, pero una activación prolongada de las señales de estrés puede favorecer el catabolismo y la disfunción metabólica. Otras evidencias experimentales muestran que el deterioro de mTORC2 puede interferir con AKT, AS160 y GLUT4, reduciendo la captación de glucosa; estos mecanismos ayudan a interpretar el vínculo entre el estrés y el metabolismo.

La conclusión es que la salud requiere atención también hacia las condiciones relacionales. Reconocer la soledad y fomentar vínculos fiables puede apoyar el cuidado diario y reducir el peso de las dificultades. Para comprender mejor cómo estas experiencias llegan a los tejidos, el recorrido ha continuado, por tanto, con el estrés y con las señales hormonales que conectan la experiencia personal con la regulación metabólica.

Estrés crónico y regulación del metabolismo

Tras profundizar en el papel de las relaciones sociales, hemos seguido el vínculo principal entre las experiencias cotidianas y la regulación metabólica: la respuesta al estrés. Ante una amenaza, real o percibida, el organismo activa sistemas que ponen a disposición los recursos necesarios para afrontarla. El riesgo surge cuando esta presión persiste y la recuperación resulta insuficiente, lo que favorece alteraciones en la regulación hormonal y en el uso de la energía.

En el centro de esta respuesta encontramos el eje hipotálamo-hipófisis-suprarrenal y el cortisol. Las investigaciones examinadas describen modificaciones en su ritmo diario y en la respuesta al despertar, junto con asociaciones con la hipertensión y alteraciones metabólicas. Por tanto, el estrés crónico puede afectar a la salud a través de una desregulación de la respuesta neuroendocrina, que no coincide necesariamente con un aumento constante de cortisol en todas las personas.

A nivel metabólico, el cortisol aumenta la producción hepática de glucosa y puede reducir su utilización en los tejidos periféricos. La interferencia con IRS1, PI3K/AKT y los mecanismos que movilizan GLUT4 puede hacer que la acción de la insulina sea menos eficaz. Inicialmente, el páncreas puede compensar produciendo más insulina y manteniendo una glucemia aparentemente normal. Esta compensación ayuda a comprender por qué una alteración de la sensibilidad a la insulina puede desarrollarse antes de un aumento evidente de la glucosa, incluso independientemente de la obesidad.

La conexión con la regulación celular también involucra a REDD1, una proteína cuya expresión puede ser inducida por los glucocorticoides. A través de TSC1/TSC2, REDD1 contribuye a reducir la actividad de mTORC1 y la síntesis proteica. Una respuesta temporal puede favorecer la adaptación; si es prolongada, puede contribuir al catabolismo y a la pérdida de masa muscular. Las evidencias sobre el deterioro de mTORC2 muestran además posibles consecuencias en la activación de AKT, pero este mecanismo debe distinguirse de la simple reducción de mTORC1.

El proceso llega finalmente al sistema AKT–AS160–GLUT4. La fosforilación de AS160 por parte de AKT favorece el traslado de las vesículas que contienen GLUT4 a la membrana, aumentando la entrada de glucosa, especialmente en el músculo y en el tejido adiposo. Las alteraciones en la señalización o en el tráfico de las vesículas pueden obstaculizar este proceso y contribuir a la resistencia a la insulina.

De este modo, hemos comprendido por qué el estrés persistente representa un factor de riesgo que debe considerarse junto con la alimentación, el ejercicio y otras condiciones personales. Reconocer las fuentes de sobrecarga y hacer posible la recuperación significa prestar atención también a la salud metabólica. Para completar esta comprensión, hemos retrocedido hasta el origen de la respuesta: los circuitos cerebrales que transforman la percepción de una amenaza en las señales hormonales capaces de alcanzar a todo el organismo.

De la señal nerviosa a la respuesta hormonal

Tras observar los efectos del cortisol en el metabolismo, hemos seguido el camino inverso para comprender cómo se origina la respuesta al estrés. Antes de que las hormonas lleguen a los tejidos, el cerebro debe reconocer una amenaza, real o percibida, y coordinar las señales necesarias para afrontarla. El riesgo surge cuando esta activación se prolonga y los sistemas que deberían contenerla no logran favorecer una recuperación adecuada.

El glutamato, principal neurotransmisor excitatorio, participa en la comunicación entre los circuitos involucrados. Su actividad se entrelaza con mTOR, que contribuye a la función y a la plasticidad de las sinapsis. Los astrocitos mantienen el equilibrio de esta comunicación eliminando el glutamato del espacio extracelular y participando en su reciclaje. En los modelos experimentales descritos, una regulación alterada de mTOR puede comprometer estas funciones, favoreciendo la acumulación de glutamato, una mayor excitabilidad y señales neuroinflamatorias.

Esta conexión nos ha mostrado cómo las condiciones metabólicas de las células pueden influir en la actividad de las redes nerviosas. Las señales glutamatérgicas llegan también a las neuronas que producen orexina, situadas en el hipotálamo lateral. La orexina sostiene la vigilia y contribuye a activar los sistemas de alerta, creando conexiones a través de las cuales la respuesta puede mantenerse y amplificarse.

Entre las estructuras involucradas encontramos el locus coeruleus, un núcleo cerebral que produce noradrenalina. La convergencia de señales orexinérgicas y glutamatérgicas favorece su activación, preparando al organismo para la atención y la acción. Esta respuesta es funcional cuando acompaña a una necesidad temporal; su persistencia, en cambio, puede obstaculizar el retorno a condiciones compatibles con el descanso y la recuperación.

El paso a la respuesta endocrina involucra al núcleo paraventricular del hipotálamo. Las señales noradrenérgicas contribuyen a regular las neuronas que producen CRH, la hormona que estimula a la adenohipófisis para liberar ACTH. Esta última llega a la corteza suprarrenal e induce la producción de cortisol. A través de esta red, la activación cerebral adquiere una dimensión sistémica, modificando la disponibilidad energética, la función cardiovascular y la actividad inmunitaria.

Los ritmos circadianos y la retroalimentación negativa ayudan normalmente a regular la respuesta. Cuando el estrés persiste, pueden alterarse la ritmicidad hormonal, la sensibilidad a los glucocorticoides y el control de la inflamación. Los circuitos descritos son, por tanto, conexiones importantes entre la percepción de la amenaza y las consecuencias biológicas, dentro de una regulación más amplia y compleja.

La conclusión se refiere a la capacidad de recuperarse tras la activación: proteger la salud significa también reconocer las condiciones que mantienen al organismo en alerta. El funcionamiento de estas redes depende, además, de los recursos disponibles para las células. Desde aquí, el camino nos ha llevado de vuelta a la nutrición, profundizando en el papel de las vitaminas y los minerales en el sostenimiento del equilibrio metabólico.

Micronutrientes y adecuación nutricional

Tras profundizar en la respuesta al estrés, hemos examinado otra condición capaz de comprometer el equilibrio del organismo: la carencia de micronutrientes. Las vitaminas, los minerales y los oligoelementos son necesarios para producir energía, apoyar las defensas inmunitarias, reparar el ADN y mantener la protección antioxidante. Por tanto, una disponibilidad insuficiente de estos puede debilitar varias funciones simultáneamente, incluso cuando la alimentación proporciona calorías suficientes o excesivas.

Este es el significado de la llamada hambre oculta: comer lo suficiente no garantiza la ingesta de todo lo que las células necesitan. El sobrepeso y la obesidad pueden coexistir con carencias nutricionales, haciendo que una evaluación basada únicamente en el peso sea insuficiente. Las investigaciones examinadas asocian una mejor calidad micronutricional de la dieta con una menor mortalidad general y, en diversas poblaciones, cardiovascular y oncológica. Estas observaciones subrayan la importancia de la composición de los alimentos, más allá de su contenido energético.

La relación con la resistencia a la insulina hace que este riesgo sea más concreto. El magnesio, el zinc, el calcio, el potasio y la vitamina D participan, con diferentes funciones, en la secreción de insulina, la producción de ATP, la función mitocondrial y la transmisión de las señales que permiten utilizar la glucosa. Una disponibilidad insuficiente puede interferir con estos procesos y acompañarse de estrés oxidativo e inflamación. En los perfiles caracterizados por carencias múltiples se han observado valores más elevados de HOMA-IR y un peor control glucémico.

Sin embargo, la relación puede darse en ambas direcciones. Las carencias detectadas en personas con diabetes tipo 2, incluidas las de vitamina D, magnesio y vitamina B12, no representan necesariamente la causa inicial de la disfunción metabólica, sino que pueden acompañarla o favorecerla. Comprender esta dinámica ayuda a evaluar las necesidades individuales sin atribuir cada alteración a un solo nutriente.

La vulnerabilidad puede, además, comenzar antes del nacimiento. El entorno nutricional materno contribuye al desarrollo pancreático y a la regulación metabólica de la descendencia. Los estudios experimentales muestran que las carencias durante el embarazo y la lactancia pueden modificar los programas energéticos y epigenéticos, dejando efectos que emergen posteriormente. Estos resultados subrayan el valor de la adecuación nutricional en las primeras etapas de la vida.

La prevención requiere, por tanto, prestar atención a la calidad y la variedad de la alimentación, junto con el reconocimiento de las insuficiencias reales. La suplementación puede ser útil cuando corrige una carencia o responde a necesidades específicas; en personas ya adecuadamente nutridas, aumentar indiscriminadamente las vitaminas y los minerales no garantiza beneficios adicionales. A partir de esta distinción hemos comenzado a profundizar en los nutrientes individuales, empezando por la vitamina D y su contribución a la regulación inmunitaria y metabólica.

Vitamina D y regulación de las funciones celulares

Tras reconocer las consecuencias de las carencias de micronutrientes, hemos profundizado en la vitamina D, encontrando funciones que se extienden más allá del mantenimiento de la salud ósea. A través del receptor VDR, presente en numerosos tejidos, su forma activa contribuye a regular programas celulares implicados en la inmunidad, el metabolismo y la respuesta al estrés. Esta distribución ayuda a comprender por qué su papel ha sido estudiado en órganos y condiciones diferentes.

En el plano inmunitario, la vitamina D participa en la coordinación entre defensa y tolerancia. Puede influir en las células presentadoras de antígenos, contener algunas respuestas proinflamatorias y favorecer la actividad de las células T reguladoras. Contribuye además al mantenimiento de las barreras intestinales y respiratorias, que representan una interfaz fundamental entre el organismo y el entorno. Estas funciones ofrecen una base biológica para interpretar las asociaciones entre carencia vitamínica, inflamación y autoinmunidad.

La conexión con el metabolismo se refiere sobre todo a la función pancreática y a la respuesta a la insulina. Las investigaciones examinadas sugieren que la vitamina D puede intervenir en las células β, en el entorno inflamatorio y en la sensibilidad de los tejidos periféricos. Algunos estudios de suplementación han documentado mejoras en los parámetros glucémicos e insulínicos, sobre todo en personas con niveles iniciales insuficientes. Sin embargo, la magnitud de los beneficios sigue siendo variable y depende de las características de los participantes y de la intervención.

Para comprender estos efectos, hemos analizado los mecanismos intracelulares. En los modelos experimentales, la activación del VDR puede aumentar la expresión de REDD1, que a través de TSC1/TSC2 contribuye a contener mTORC1. Esta regulación puede limitar las señales proliferativas y favorecer la autofagia, el proceso mediante el cual las células degradan y reciclan parte de sus propios componentes. El significado del efecto depende del tejido y de las condiciones estudiadas.

Junto a esta vía, hemos encontrado AMPK, implicado en la adaptación energética. Las investigaciones sobre la esteatosis hepática, el intestino y la osteoartritis sugieren conexiones con la utilización de la glucosa, la oxidación de las grasas y la gestión del estrés celular. Otros estudios han explorado posibles efectos en la nefropatía diabética y en las condiciones neurológicas, mientras que muchas aplicaciones quedan por confirmar clínicamente.

También en oncología es necesario distinguir los resultados: algunos metaanálisis sobre la suplementación han detectado una reducción de la mortalidad por cáncer, sin demostrar una disminución significativa de los nuevos casos. Las observaciones moleculares y clínicas responden, por tanto, a preguntas diferentes.

El valor de la vitamina D emerge de su participación en funciones esenciales y de la posibilidad de corregir su insuficiencia cuando está presente. Mantener su adecuación significa contribuir al funcionamiento normal del organismo, dentro de un cuidado integral de la salud. De esta regulación de los programas celulares hemos pasado a la vitamina C, profundizando en su contribución a la protección oxidativa, a la integridad de los tejidos y al control de las respuestas a la oxigenación.

La vitamina C entre la integridad de los tejidos y la respuesta celular

Tras profundizar en la vitamina D, hemos encontrado en la vitamina C otro elemento esencial para el mantenimiento de la salud. El ser humano no puede sintetizarla y debe obtenerla a través de la alimentación. Su disponibilidad favorece la protección antioxidante, la formación de tejidos, la absorción de hierro y diversas funciones inmunitarias. Además, contribuye a la síntesis de moléculas implicadas en la comunicación nerviosa y a la actividad de enzimas que participan en la regulación de la expresión génica.

Una de sus funciones fundamentales se refiere al colágeno, proteína estructural presente en la piel, los tendones, los ligamentos, los huesos y las paredes vasculares. La vitamina C actúa como cofactor de las enzimas necesarias para su correcta formación, favoreciendo modificaciones que estabilizan su estructura. Esta contribución permite comprender su papel en la integridad de los tejidos y en los procesos reparativos, así como las consecuencias de una carencia prolongada.

La protección estructural está directamente relacionada con las defensas inmunitarias. La piel y las mucosas constituyen las primeras barreras contra los agentes externos, mientras que la vitamina C también apoya la actividad de las células que intervienen cuando estas barreras son superadas. Favorece la migración de los neutrófilos y la fagocitosis, es decir, la capacidad de englobar y eliminar microorganismos, y participa en los procesos que acompañan la resolución de la inflamación. Las investigaciones examinadas describen, además, una implicación en las funciones de las células Natural Killer y en la maduración de los linfocitos T.

Durante las infecciones, el consumo de vitamina C puede aumentar, pero sus funciones fisiológicas deben distinguirse de los resultados de la suplementación. Los estudios sobre el resfriado muestran beneficios limitados, sobre todo en la duración de los síntomas en determinadas condiciones, sin demostrar una prevención general de la infección.

Otra conexión se refiere a HIF-1α, una proteína que coordina parte de la respuesta celular a la escasez de oxígeno. La vitamina C apoya la actividad de las hidroxilasas que, cuando el oxígeno y los demás cofactores están disponibles, contribuyen a limitar su estabilidad y actividad. Esta regulación afecta a programas relacionados con el uso de glucosa, la producción de lactato y la formación de nuevos vasos sanguíneos.

En los modelos oncológicos, la relación con HIF-1α ha abierto perspectivas de investigación sobre el metabolismo y el microambiente tumoral. Incluso las altas concentraciones que pueden obtenerse por vía intravenosa han sido estudiadas por sus efectos en el equilibrio oxidativo de las células neoplásicas. Sin embargo, estos resultados pertenecen a condiciones diferentes a la ingesta alimentaria y no demuestran una eficacia antitumoral de la suplementación ordinaria.

La vitamina C emerge, por tanto, como un nutriente necesario para apoyar funciones complementarias: proteger, construir, reparar y regular. Garantizar un aporte adecuado contribuye al funcionamiento normal del organismo. De la integridad de los tejidos hemos pasado a la composición de las membranas celulares, profundizando con los Omega-3 en la relación entre estructura, comunicación y control de la inflamación.

Omega 3 y composición de las membranas celulares

Tras haber profundizado en la contribución de la vitamina C a la integridad de los tejidos, hemos dirigido nuestra atención a las membranas celulares. Aquí, el EPA y el DHA, dos importantes ácidos grasos Omega-3, participan en la estructura a través de la cual las células reciben y transmiten señales. Su incorporación modifica la composición lipídica de las membranas y puede influir en el funcionamiento de los sistemas implicados en la comunicación, la inmunidad y el metabolismo.

Los estudios examinados han documentado este proceso en el corazón, los glóbulos rojos, las plaquetas y las células inmunitarias. La incorporación se produce de forma progresiva y, en diversos compartimentos, se acompaña de una reducción de la proporción de ácido araquidónico. De este modo, cambia la disponibilidad de los precursores utilizados para producir mediadores lipídicos, lo que contribuye a modular la respuesta inflamatoria. Esta relación debe interpretarse considerando las funciones fisiológicas de ambas familias de ácidos grasos, sin atribuir a los Omega-6 un papel exclusivamente desfavorable.

De estas modificaciones se derivan vínculos con diversos ámbitos de la salud. Las investigaciones han reportado efectos favorables en algunos parámetros cardiovasculares, inflamatorios y metabólicos, mientras que los estudios sobre enfermedades autoinmunes han profundizado en la regulación de las respuestas inmunitarias. En el sistema nervioso, el interés se centra sobre todo en la neuroinflamación y el mantenimiento de la función neuronal. Sin embargo, las aplicaciones exploradas en el alzhéimer, el párkinson y la oncología presentan niveles de evidencia diferentes y no demuestran una eficacia terapéutica generalizable.

Un aspecto central se refiere a la sensibilidad a la insulina. El EPA y el DHA pueden contribuir a modular la inflamación del tejido adiposo, creando condiciones potencialmente más favorables para la respuesta a la insulina. Algunos estudios realizados en diabetes gestacional, síndrome de ovario poliquístico y obesidad pediátrica han observado mejoras en los indicadores metabólicos. Los resultados siguen siendo heterogéneos y dependen de las características de las personas y de las intervenciones.

Para comprender estos efectos, también hemos seguido la señalización intracelular. En modelos experimentales específicos, el ácido araquidónico puede involucrar a PI3K/AKT/mTOR; por tanto, modificar su disponibilidad en las membranas podría influir en parte de estas señales. Otras investigaciones muestran que el EPA y el DHA pueden contener la actividad de mTOR y favorecer, en determinadas condiciones, la autofagia, contribuyendo a la renovación de los componentes celulares.

AMPK completa este vínculo con la regulación energética. Su activación, observada en diversos modelos, puede participar en los efectos de los Omega-3 sobre el metabolismo, la inflamación y el control de mTOR. Estos mecanismos ayudan a interpretar las observaciones, manteniendo una distinción clara entre la plausibilidad biológica y los beneficios clínicos demostrados.

El significado nutricional de los Omega-3 reside, por tanto, en su contribución a la estructura y la regulación celular. Un aporte adecuado tiene cabida en la calidad general de la alimentación, mientras que la suplementación requiere una evaluación de las necesidades individuales. De la composición de las membranas pasamos después al tiempo de las respuestas biológicas: con la melatonina hemos profundizado en cómo los ritmos diarios, el descanso y el mantenimiento celular participan en el mismo equilibrio.

Melatonina y coordinación de los ritmos biológicos

Tras profundizar en el papel de los Omega-3 en las membranas celulares, hemos observado cómo el funcionamiento del organismo depende también de la regularidad de sus ritmos. La melatonina, producida por la glándula pineal y también en diversos tejidos periféricos, participa en la señalización circadiana y en la coordinación entre actividad y descanso. Las investigaciones examinadas describen además sus acciones antioxidantes, antiinflamatorias e inmunomoduladoras, con posibles efectos sobre la funcionalidad de las mitocondrias.

La relación más conocida tiene que ver con el sueño. La melatonina contribuye a sincronizar los procesos que acompañan el paso de la vigilia al descanso. Los estudios clínicos han documentado, en condiciones específicas, una reducción del tiempo necesario para conciliar el sueño y mejoras en algunos parámetros del mismo. Sin embargo, la magnitud de los efectos varía según el trastorno, las características individuales y las modalidades de administración.

Para comprender su acción, hemos seguido el receptor MT1, a través del cual se transmiten algunas señales a las células nerviosas. En los modelos experimentales descritos, este receptor participa en la regulación de los circuitos que organizan las fases del sueño. En el locus coeruleus, la reducción de la actividad de las neuronas noradrenérgicas acompaña el paso a condiciones de menor vigilancia y es particularmente marcada durante el sueño REM.

Estos circuitos dialogan con las neuronas orexinérgicas del hipotálamo lateral, que mantienen la vigilia y estimulan los sistemas de alerta. Las investigaciones experimentales sugieren que la melatonina puede modular también su actividad a través del MT1, contribuyendo a la transición hacia el descanso. Hemos encontrado así estructuras ya vistas en el estrés, comprendiendo cuánto dependen la activación y la recuperación de una regulación coordinada.

La presencia de receptores en el páncreas, el intestino, los vasos sanguíneos y las células inmunitarias extiende esta comunicación más allá del cerebro. La melatonina puede influir en la secreción de insulina, el metabolismo glucídico, el tono vascular y las respuestas inflamatorias. Estos vínculos muestran cómo la señal circadiana participa en la organización de las funciones de todo el organismo.

Un aspecto adicional se refiere al mantenimiento celular. En los modelos estudiados, la melatonina modula la autofagia, a través de la cual se degradan y reciclan componentes celulares, y la mitofagia, dedicada a la eliminación de las mitocondrias comprometidas. AMPK y mTORC1 participan en esta regulación, conectando la disponibilidad energética, la síntesis y el recambio. Los efectos dependen del tejido y de las condiciones: mantener estos procesos eficientes requiere una modulación adecuada.

La melatonina nos ha ayudado, por tanto, a comprender la relación entre ritmos biológicos, descanso y equilibrio celular. Sus funciones fisiológicas ofrecen una perspectiva amplia, mientras que las aplicaciones terapéuticas requieren evidencias específicas. De esta organización temporal hemos pasado al magnesio, necesario para numerosas reacciones que sostienen la producción de energía y la transmisión de señales.

Magnesio y funcionamiento de las reacciones metabólicas

Tras haber profundizado en la relación entre la melatonina, el descanso y el mantenimiento celular, hemos encontrado en el magnesio un elemento necesario para el funcionamiento de numerosos procesos biológicos. Este mineral participa en cientos de reacciones enzimáticas involucradas en la producción y el uso de energía, en la transmisión nerviosa y en la actividad muscular. Además, contribuye al metabolismo de la vitamina D, lo que demuestra que la eficacia de los nutrientes depende también de la disponibilidad de los cofactores necesarios para su utilización.

Su papel se extiende a la regulación cardiovascular. Los estudios clínicos examinados han documentado reducciones moderadas de la presión arterial con la suplementación, especialmente en personas hipertensas o con una disponibilidad insuficiente del mineral. Las investigaciones epidemiológicas asocian, además, una mayor ingesta alimentaria de magnesio con un menor riesgo de ictus, diabetes de tipo 2 y otros resultados cardiometabólicos. Estas observaciones deben interpretarse en el contexto de la alimentación general, ya que los alimentos que aportan magnesio también proporcionan otras sustancias útiles.

Su participación en la función nerviosa y muscular ha sugerido otros ámbitos de investigación. Algunos estudios reportan beneficios en la recuperación tras el ejercicio, en determinados parámetros del sueño y en los síntomas ansiosos o depresivos. Una conexión particularmente importante se refiere a la sensibilidad a la insulina. El magnesio contribuye a las reacciones que sostienen la actividad del receptor de insulina y la transmisión de las señales necesarias para el uso de la glucosa. Una disponibilidad insuficiente del mismo puede interferir con estos procesos y acompañarse de inflamación y estrés oxidativo. Algunos metaanálisis y ensayos clínicos han observado mejoras en el HOMA-IR y en parámetros glucémicos, sobre todo en personas con alteraciones metabólicas o carencia del mineral.

La relación puede volverse recíproca: la disfunción metabólica puede favorecer la pérdida de magnesio, mientras que la insuficiencia puede hacer menos eficiente la respuesta a la insulina. Por tanto, corregir una carencia adquiere un significado concreto en el apoyo a las funciones celulares normales.

En los modelos experimentales hemos seguido también las conexiones con AMPK, mTOR y autofagia. En determinadas condiciones, el magnesio puede influir en estos sistemas, contribuyendo a la regulación energética y al reciclaje de los componentes celulares; los efectos descritos en el tejido óseo, en el hígado y en modelos tumorales dependen del contexto.

El mensaje final se refiere, por tanto, a la adecuación: garantizar el magnesio significa apoyar reacciones indispensables para la salud, mientras que la suplementación debe responder a necesidades individuales. Desde esta base nutricional hemos pasado a las especias, profundizando en cómo sus compuestos bioactivos pueden interactuar con algunas de las mismas señales metabólicas.

Las especias y sus vínculos metabólicos

Los últimos seis capítulos han vuelto a centrar nuestra atención en ingredientes familiares, mostrando la complejidad biológica que puede esconderse detrás de un aroma. La canela, la cúrcuma, el clavo, el orégano, la pimienta negra y el jengibre contienen compuestos capaces de interactuar con señales inflamatorias y metabólicas. Considerarlos en conjunto permite reconocer el hilo que los une y, al mismo tiempo, las diferencias entre las pruebas disponibles para cada uno.

La canela nos introdujo al cinamaldehído, al ácido cinámico y a los polifenoles. Los estudios clínicos han reportado resultados sobre algunos parámetros glucémicos y lipídicos, con una variabilidad vinculada también a las formulaciones. En los modelos experimentales, la relación con GLUT4 y AMPK ofrece posibles explicaciones de los efectos metabólicos. Las observaciones sobre PI3K/AKT/mTOR, HIF-1α y autofagia pertenecen, en cambio, a contextos específicos, entre ellos los tumorales, y requieren una lectura distinta al uso de la especia en la comida.

La cúrcuma ha ampliado este tema a través de la curcumina y los demás curcuminoides. La modulación de NF-κB, el estrés oxidativo y las citoquinas ha constituido un vínculo con la inflamación. Los resultados clínicos sobre el dolor articular e indicadores metabólicos han mostrado interés, pero también diferencias entre preparaciones. La biodisponibilidad se ha convertido en parte esencial de la interpretación: la cantidad ingerida no coincide necesariamente con la que llega a los tejidos o produce los efectos observados en el laboratorio.

En los modelos tumorales, la curcumina puede influir en la proliferación, la apoptosis, la autofagia y la ferroptosis. En otros tejidos, AMPK y mTOR participan en respuestas de protección y adaptación. Esta diversidad confirma que una molécula no posee un único efecto independiente del contexto. El objetivo de la investigación es entender dónde, cómo y bajo qué condiciones una propiedad puede traducirse en un resultado útil.

Con el clavo hemos encontrado sobre todo el eugenol. Las propiedades antioxidantes, antiinflamatorias y antimicrobianas descritas experimentalmente han abierto perspectivas sobre tejidos diferentes. Las primeras observaciones clínicas sobre extractos y parámetros glucémicos representan un nivel de evidencia interesante pero aún limitado respecto a la amplitud de los mecanismos explorados. La participación de AMPK, GLUT4 y autofagia hace comprensible el interés metabólico, sin permitir atribuir al uso culinario los efectos de cada preparación estudiada.

El orégano ha añadido carvacrol y timol a esta red. En los modelos examinados, la modulación del estrés oxidativo y de la inflamación se acompaña de efectos sobre la señalización insulínica y el metabolismo hepático. IRS, AKT, AS160 y GLUT4 reaparecen en el camino que facilita el uso de la glucosa. En otros contextos, la reducción de señales proliferativas involucra a PI3K/AKT/mTOR. La presencia de dianas comunes ayuda a formular hipótesis, pero no convierte a un compuesto en equivalente a un fármaco que actúa sobre parte de la misma red.

La pimienta negra nos ha conducido a la piperina y a un aspecto adicional: la capacidad de modificar la biodisponibilidad de otras sustancias. Las asociaciones con la curcumina han sido estudiadas en diversas condiciones, haciendo necesario distinguir los efectos de la combinación de los de los componentes individuales. En los modelos preclínicos, la piperina, AMPK y GLUT4 se conectan con la captación de glucosa, mientras que la autofagia y las señales de crecimiento aparecen en los estudios neurológicos y oncológicos. La modificación de la absorción y del metabolismo explica también la posibilidad de interacciones con fármacos y suplementos.

Finalmente, el jengibre ha reunido muchas de estas conexiones a través de gingeroles y shogaoles. Los resultados clínicos sobre glucemia, hemoglobina glicosilada y otros indicadores metabólicos son alentadores, aunque con resultados no siempre uniformes. En los modelos musculares, el 6-gingerol puede involucrar a AMPK, AS160 y GLUT4; el 6-shogaol ha sido estudiado también por la modulación de señales proliferativas y de la autofagia. Las observaciones sobre la barrera intestinal han devuelto el camino a la comunicación entre la inflamación y la integridad de los tejidos.

Vistas en conjunto, las seis especias muestran un punto común: la alimentación introduce sustancias que pueden tener una actividad biológica más allá de su aporte energético. La fuerza de las conclusiones varía, sin embargo, según lo que se haya estudiado. Un experimento celular, un extracto estandarizado y una cantidad culinaria no representan la misma exposición. Las dosis, la absorción y las condiciones de la persona determinan la distancia entre una propiedad molecular y un posible beneficio.

Su empleo alimentario puede contribuir a la variedad y al placer de la comida, mientras que los extractos requieren una evaluación propia. Ninguna especia resume por sí sola el valor de una alimentación adecuada ni sustituye a los tratamientos médicos. El significado de estos capítulos es haber mostrado, a través de ejemplos diversos, el retorno de los mismos nodos biológicos: insulina, AMPK, mTOR, inflamación y recambio celular. A partir de esta convergencia podemos ahora dar el último paso y poner nombre a la perspectiva que ha conectado toda la obra.

Life Pathway como propuesta editorial unitaria

Llegados a este punto, podemos reconocer con mayor claridad el hilo que une el libro. Hemos seguido la glucosa desde la comida hasta los tejidos, observado la insulina como mensaje y profundizado en las proteínas que lo traducen. Luego, nos hemos encontrado con esas mismas redes en la inmunidad, en las patologías y en las respuestas a los comportamientos cotidianos. El concepto de “Life Pathway” nace de la voluntad de hacer legible esta continuidad y constituye la propuesta editorial con la que deseamos concluir la obra.

Con este nombre definimos la red funcional integrada a través de la cual las señales metabólicas, energéticas y ambientales convergen en las respuestas celulares. En el centro de nuestra lectura encontramos el camino que, desde el receptor de insulina, atraviesa IRS-1/2, PI3K y AKT, junto con los reguladores y efectores que amplían su significado. mTOR representa uno de los principales nodos de esta integración; AMPK, HIF-1α, REDD1 y TSC1/TSC2 contribuyen a conectar la energía, la oxigenación, la disponibilidad de nutrientes y las condiciones de estrés.

La novedad que proponemos es editorial e interpretativa: reunir estas conexiones en una perspectiva reconocible, capaz de acompañar al lector a través de temas que a menudo se abordan por separado. El “Life Pathway” no designa el descubrimiento de una nueva vía molecular distinta de las ya conocidas. Es el nombre asignado en esta obra a una lectura integrada de sus relaciones. Su valor se mide en la capacidad de aclarar los vínculos, preservando la complejidad y los límites de los conocimientos disponibles.

Esta precisión permite comprender también el papel de la insulina. La hormona señala la disponibilidad de recursos y contribuye a utilizarlos, almacenarlos y destinarlos a la síntesis. La calidad de la respuesta depende de la secreción, del aclaramiento y de la sensibilidad de los tejidos. La hiperinsulinemia persistente puede insertarse en circuitos de disfunción, pero la red recibe muchas otras señales y no todas las enfermedades provienen de una única alteración insulínica. El “Life Pathway” conserva estas relaciones sin aplanarlas en una secuencia universal.

El principio que emerge se refiere a la capacidad de modulación. Una célula debe poder crecer cuando es necesario, utilizar energía durante una demanda, reparar estructuras y reciclar componentes comprometidos. mTOR y AMPK participan en esta coordinación, con funciones que cambian según el tejido y el momento. HIF-1α contribuye a la adaptación metabólica; REDD1 y el sistema TSC introducen señales de control. La salud depende también de la posibilidad de alternar programas apropiados, manteniendo la respuesta proporcionada a las condiciones.

Es por esto que hemos encontrado efectos diferentes de la misma vía. En el músculo, las señales de síntesis apoyan la recuperación; en algunas células tumorales pueden favorecer un crecimiento patológico. Las Treg ayudan a contener la autoinmunidad, pero en el microambiente tumoral pueden obstaculizar la respuesta antitumoral. La autofagia contribuye al recambio, mientras que su papel varía según la condición. La perspectiva unitaria adquiere valor precisamente cuando nos ayuda a interpretar tales diferencias, evitando etiquetas absolutas para moléculas individuales.

El “Life Pathway” conecta esta complejidad con la vida cotidiana. La alimentación modifica la disponibilidad de nutrientes y las respuestas hormonales; el movimiento aumenta la demanda energética y sostiene adaptaciones; el estrés, el sueño y las relaciones interactúan con los sistemas neuroendocrinos. El tabaco introduce exposiciones dañinas e involucra los circuitos de la dependencia. Los micronutrientes y los lípidos participan en el funcionamiento y la estructura de las células. Estos factores se encuentran en el organismo y contribuyen, con pesos diferentes, al contexto en el cual este debe mantenerse eficiente.

La conciencia que deseamos dejar al lector nace de esta visión. Un hábito adquiere significado cuando comprendemos qué funciones puede sostener y por qué su continuidad cuenta. Cambiar puede significar hacer más adecuada la alimentación, encontrar ocasiones de movimiento, proteger el descanso, afrontar el tabaquismo con un apoyo apropiado. Cada camino debe considerar la salud, las posibilidades y las condiciones de vida de la persona, de modo que se transforme el conocimiento en acciones realistas.

La elección a la que alude el título del libro encuentra aquí su significado más responsable. Podemos participar en el cuidado de nuestra salud, aun sin controlar cada factor que la determina. Enfermar no demuestra haber elegido mal, así como un comportamiento favorable no garantiza la ausencia de enfermedad. Conocer los mecanismos permite, sin embargo, reconocer un espacio de acción y atribuir valor a los cambios que podemos sostener, junto con los tratamientos y las evaluaciones necesarias.

Con el “Life Pathway” proponemos, pues, al lector una herramienta para mantener unido lo que ha aprendido. El recorrido termina en el plano de la narración, pero las preguntas que lo han guiado pueden acompañar las decisiones de cada día: ¿qué condiciones le estoy ofreciendo a mi organismo?, ¿qué necesidades estoy descuidando?, ¿qué cambio puedo hacer estable? La finalidad de la obra es esta mayor participación consciente. Comprender lo que sucede dentro de nosotros puede ayudarnos a cuidarlo con más continuidad, competencia y respeto por la complejidad biológica de la vida.

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[29] Glycaemic and Insulinaemic Responses to Mashed Potato Alone or with Broccoli, Broccoli Fibre or Cellulose in Healthy Adults.

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[30] Effects of Carbohydrate Restriction on Postprandial Glucose Metabolism, β-Cell Function, Gut Hormone Secretion and Satiety in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes.

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[36] Performance of Fasting Plasma Glucose for Community Screening of Undiagnosed Diabetes and Prediabetes in Sub-Saharan Africa

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[37] Evaluation of Glycated Hemoglobin (HbA1c) for Diagnosing Type 2 Diabetes and Prediabetes among Palestinian Arab Population

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[40] Risk of Progression to Diabetes from Prediabetes Defined by HbA1c or Fasting Plasma Glucose Criteria in Koreans

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[41] Predictive Performance of Glycated Hemoglobin for Incident Diabetes Compared with Glucose Tolerance Test According to Central Obesity

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[42] Associations between Three Diagnostic Glycemic Measures with All-Cause and Cardiovascular Mortality among Individuals without Antidiabetic Medication: A Prospective Cohort Study

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[43] Hemoglobin A1c versus Oral Glucose Tolerance Test in Identifying Prediabetes among the Qatari Population

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[44] Performance of HbA1c Compared with Oral Glucose Tolerance Test as a Screening Tool to Diagnose Dysglycemia in High-Risk Thai Patients

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[47] Accuracy of 1-Hour Plasma Glucose during the Oral Glucose Tolerance Test in Diagnosing Type 2 Diabetes in Adults: A Meta-Analysis

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[48] One-Hour Plasma Glucose Is the Best Predictor of Future Dysglycemia among Individuals with Normal Glucose Tolerance

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[49] The 1-hour post-load glucose level is more effective than HbA1c for screening dysglycemia

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Diabetes Care. 2003;26(3):688–696.

Capítulo 3 · Variabilidad glucémica y alteraciones que preceden a la diabetes (54)

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Clinical Endocrinology, 2012; 76(6):810–815.

[3] The Rationale for Pre- and Postprandial Blood Glucose Monitoring: The Role of Glycemic Variability in Micro- and Macrovascular Risk

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Current Medical Research and Opinion, 2007; 23(8):1791–1798.

[4] Dietary Modification with Food Order and Split Carbohydrate Intake Improves Glycemic Excursions in Healthy Young Women

Higuchi et al., 2025

Nutrients, 2025; 17(20):3194.

[5] Optimizing Glycemic Variability in Type 2 Diabetes through Simple Dietary and Culinary Recommendations to Modulate Starch Digestibility: A Randomized Controlled Trial

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The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2025; 122(6):1591–1601.

[6] Continuous Glucose Monitoring Glycemic Variability Parameters as Predictors of Diabetes: A Prospective Evaluation in a General Non-Diabetic Population

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Advances in Laboratory Medicine, 2025; 6(1):46–51.

[7] Glycemic Variability: How Do We Measure It and Why Is It Important?

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Diabetes & Metabolism Journal, 2015; 39(4):273–282.

[8] Glycemic Variability: Adverse Clinical Outcomes and How to Improve It?

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[9] Glycemic Variability in Relation to Oral Disposition Index in Subjects with Different Stages of Glucose Tolerance

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[10] Glucose Variability: A Review of Clinical Applications and Research Developments

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[12] Normal Glucose Tolerance with a High 1-Hour Postload Plasma Glucose Level Exhibits Decreased β-Cell Function Similar to Impaired Glucose Tolerance

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[13] Elevated 1-Hour Plasma Glucose Levels Are Associated with Dysglycemia, Impaired β-Cell Function and Insulin Sensitivity: Pilot Study from a Real-World Health Care Setting

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[14] Relationship Between Glycemic Variability, Hemoglobin A1c, and Mean Glucose in Phase 3 Clinical Trials Among Patients with Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes

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[15] Insulin Resistance and β-Cell Dysfunction in Individuals with Normal Glucose Tolerance but Elevated 1-Hour Plasma Glucose After Oral Glucose Load

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[18] The Normal Glucose Tolerance Continuum in Obese Youth: Evidence for Impairment in β-Cell Function Independent of Insulin Resistance

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[19] The Relationship Between Fasting Hyperglycemia and Insulin Secretion in Subjects with Normal or Impaired Glucose Tolerance

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[20] Pancreatic β-Cell Dysfunction in Normoglycemic Patients and Risk Factors

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[21] Evidence of Reduced β-Cell Function in Asian Indians with Mild Dysglycemia

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Diabetes Care, 2013; 36(9):2772–2778.

[22] Associations of β-Cell Function and Insulin Resistance with Youth-Onset Type 2 Diabetes and Prediabetes Among Asian Indians

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Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics, 2013; 15(4):315–322.

[23] Deterioration of Beta Cell Function Is the Dominant Determinant of Progression from Normal Glucose Tolerance to Prediabetes/Diabetes in Young Women After Pregnancy

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Diabetologia, 2023; 66(11):2154–2163.

[24] Early Beta Cell Dysfunction Versus Insulin Hypersecretion as the Primary Event in the Pathogenesis of Dysglycaemia

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[29] Systematic Investigation of the Role of Intermittent Hyperglycemia in Pancreatic Beta Cells

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International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, 2015; 8(4):5462–5469. PMID: 26131124.

[30] Cytotoxic Effect of Intermittent High Glucose on Apoptosis and Cell Viability in Pancreatic Beta Cells

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[31] Reduction of Insulin Clearance During Hyperglycemia

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Diabetes, 1988; 37(10):1351–1357.

[32] Pulsatile Insulin Secretion Dictates Systemic Insulin Delivery by Regulating Hepatic Insulin Extraction in Humans

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Diabetes, 2005; 54(6):1649–1656.

[33] Impaired Insulin Clearance as a Cause Rather than a Consequence of Insulin Resistance

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[34] Hypothesis: Role of Reduced Hepatic Insulin Clearance in the Pathogenesis of Type 2 Diabetes

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[35] Hepatic Insulin Clearance Is the Primary Determinant of Insulin Sensitivity in the Normal Dog

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[37] A Systematic Review of Beta Cell Function in Adults of Black African Ethnicity

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[38] Pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes in sub-Saharan Africans

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[39] Hyperinsulinism and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): role of insulin clearance

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[41] Variability in Directly Measured First-Pass Hepatic Insulin Extraction and Its Association with Insulin Sensitivity and Plasma Insulin

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[42] Development of hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance during the early stage of weight gain

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[19] Role of mTOR in Glucose and Lipid Metabolism

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[29] The TSC1-2 tumor suppressor controls insulin-PI3K signaling via regulation of IRS proteins

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[7] An imbalance between blood CD4+CXCR5+Foxp3+ Tfr cells and CD4+CXCR5+Tfh cells may contribute to the immunopathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis

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[17] WTD Attenuating Rheumatoid Arthritis via Suppressing Angiogenesis and Modulating the PI3K/AKT/mTOR/HIF-1α Pathway

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[22] Iguratimod Restrains Circulating Follicular Helper T Cell Function by Inhibiting Glucose Metabolism via Hif1α-HK2 Axis in Rheumatoid Arthritis

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Afr Health Sci. 2023 Mar;23(1):795-806.

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Int J Rheum Dis. 2017 Jul;20(7):825-831.

[35] Vitamin D: does it help Tregs in active rheumatoid arthritis patients

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Capítulo 8 · Psoriasis y señales que atraviesan la piel (36)

[1] The Defect in Regulatory T Cells in Psoriasis and Therapeutic Approaches

Kanda et al., 2021

J Clin Med. 2021 Aug 29;10(17):3880.

[2] Changes in the Immune Profile and Chromatin Accessibility of Peripheral Regulatory T Cells in Psoriasis Patients Before and After Treatment With Biologics

Zhang et al., 2025

Exp Dermatol. 2025 Apr;34(4):e70079.

[3] Alleviating psoriatic skin inflammation through augmentation of Treg cells via CTLA-4 signaling peptide

Lee et al., 2023

Front Immunol. 2023 Sep 25:14:1233514.

[4] Induction of Regulatory T Cells and Correction of Cytokine Disbalance by Short-Chain Fatty Acids: Implications for Psoriasis Therapy

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J Invest Dermatol. 2021 Jan;141(1):95-104.e2.

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Hau et al., 2018

J Dermatol Sci. 2018 Nov;92(2):117-126.

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[7] Patients with psoriasis are insulin resistant

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J Am Acad Dermatol. 2015 Apr;72(4):599-605.

[8] Association between baseline insulin resistance and psoriasis incidence: the Women's Health Initiative

Chan et al., 2022

Arch Dermatol Res. 2022 Nov;314(9):869-880.

[9] Association of METS-IR index with psoriasis in US adults: a cross-sectional study

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[13] Clinico-Biochemical Correlation Between Psoriasis and Insulin Resistance

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Int J Dermatol. 2010 Jun;49(6):642-6.

[15] High prevalence of metabolic syndrome and of insulin resistance in psoriatic arthritis is associated with the severity of underlying disease

Haroon et al., 2014

J Rheumatol. 2014 Jul;41(7):1357-65.

[16] Recent Updates on the Involvement of PI3K/AKT/mTOR Molecular Cascade in the Pathogenesis of Hyperproliferative Skin Disorders

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[17] Psoriasis immunometabolism: progress on metabolic biomarkers and targeted therapy

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[19] Mammalian target of rapamycin and its downstream signalling components are activated in psoriatic skin

Buerger et al., 2013

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[20] Pivotal Role of mTOR in Non-Skin Manifestations of Psoriasis

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[22] Epidermal mTORC1 Signaling Contributes to the Pathogenesis of Psoriasis and Could Serve as a Therapeutic Target

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[23] Predominant Role of mTOR Signaling in Skin Diseases with Therapeutic Potential

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[24] Blocking mTOR Signalling with Rapamycin Ameliorates Imiquimod-induced Psoriasis in Mice

Bürger et al., 2017

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[25] Treatment of psoriasis with topical sirolimus: preclinical development and a randomized, double-blind trial

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Br J Dermatol. 2005 Apr;152(4):758-64.

[26] Efficacy of sirolimus (rapamycin) administered concomitantly with a subtherapeutic dose of cyclosporin in the treatment of severe psoriasis: a randomized controlled trial

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Br J Dermatol. 2001 Sep;145(3):438-45.

[27] Liangxue Jiedu Formula Improves Psoriasis and Dyslipidemia Comorbidity via PI3K/Akt/mTOR Pathway

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[28] Methotrexate restores the function of peripheral blood regulatory T cells in psoriasis vulgaris via the CD73/AMPK/mTOR pathway

Yan et al., 2018

Br J Dermatol. 2018 Oct;179(4):896-905.

[29] LPA/LPAR1 Signaling Induces PGAM1 Expression via AKT/mTOR/HIF-1α Pathway and Increases Aerobic Glycolysis, Contributing to Keratinocyte Proliferation

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[30] Cross Talk between Proliferative, Angiogenic, and Cellular Mechanisms Orchestred by HIF-1α in Psoriasis

Torales-Cardeña et al., 2015

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[31] Deciphering the Mechanism of PSORI-CM02 in Suppressing Keratinocyte Proliferation through the mTOR/HK2/Glycolysis Axis

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[32] Association between circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and psoriasis, and correlation with disease severity: a meta-analysis

Lee e Song, 2018

Clin Exp Dermatol. 2018 Jul;43(5):529-535.

[33] Deficiency of serum concentration of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in psoriatic patients: a case-control study

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J Am Acad Dermatol. 2012 Nov;67(5):931-8.

[34] The role of vitamin D in psoriasis: a review

Soleymani et al., 2015

Int J Dermatol. 2015 Apr;54(4):383-92.

[35] Oral vitamin D, still a viable treatment option for psoriasis

Kamangar et al., 2013

J Dermatolog Treat. 2013 Aug;24(4):261-7.

[36] A pilot study assessing the effect of prolonged administration of high daily doses of vitamin D on the clinical course of vitiligo and psoriasis

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Dermatoendocrinol. 2013 Jan 1;5(1):222-34.

Capítulo 9 · Lupus y la complejidad de la tolerancia inmunitaria (31)

[1] The ratio of circulating follicular T helper cell to follicular T regulatory cell is correlated with disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus

Xu et al., 2017

Clin Immunol. 2017 Oct:183:46-53.

[2] T Cell Metabolism: A New Perspective on Th17/Treg Cell Imbalance in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

Shan et al., 2020

Front Immunol. 2020 May 22:11:1027.

[3] T cell metabolism: new insights in systemic lupus erythematosus pathogenesis and therapy

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[4] Mechanisms of impaired regulation by CD4(+) CD25(+)FOXP3(+) regulatory T cells in human autoimmune diseases

Buckner, 2010

Nat Rev Immunol. 2010 Dec;10(12):849-59.

[5] Hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance, and circulating oxidized low density lipoprotein in women with systemic lupus erythematosus

Magadmi et al., 2006

J Rheumatol. 2006 Jan;33(1):50-6.

[6] Clinical evaluation of insulin resistance and beta-cell function by the homeostasis model assessment in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus

Tso et al., 2004

Clin Rheumatol. 2004 Oct;23(5):416-20.

[7] Insulin resistance in children with juvenile systemic lupus erythematosus and ınvestigation of the possibly responsible factors

Tarçın et al., 2022

Clin Rheumatol. 2022 Mar;41(3):795-801.

[8] The mTOR kinase differentially regulates effector and regulatory T cell lineage commitment

Delgoffe et al., 2009

Immunity. 2009 Jun 19;30(6):832-44.

[9] mTOR signaling: A pivotal player in Treg cell dysfunction in systemic lupus erythematosus

Zhao et al., 2022

Clin Immunol. 2022 Dec:245:109153.

[10] The Role of Immunometabolism in the Pathogenesis of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

Robinson et al., 2022

Front Immunol. 2022 Jan 26:12:806560.

[11] Role of T cells in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematous: Focus on immunometabolism dysfunctions

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Int Immunopharmacol. 2023 Jun:119:110246.

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He et al., 2020

Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2020 Apr;50(2):314-320.

[13] mTOR signaling: a central pathway to pathogenesis in systemic lupus erythematosus?

Fernandez e Perl, 2010

Discov Med. 2010 Mar;9(46):173-8.

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Methods Mol Biol. 2012:821:279-93.

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Warner et al., 1994

Arthritis Rheum. 1994 Feb;37(2):289-97.

[16] Rapamycin reduces disease activity and normalizes T cell activation-induced calcium fluxing in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus

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Peng et al., 2020

Ther Adv Musculoskelet Dis. 2020 Sep 14:12:1759720X20953336.

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Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2020 Oct;50(5):1073-1080.

[19] Clinical efficacy and safety of sirolimus in childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus in real world

Zhang et al., 2022

Medicine (Baltimore). 2022 Nov 18;101(46):e31551.

[20] Rapamycin for refractory discoid lupus erythematosus

Herold et al., 2018

Dermatol Ther. 2018 Sep;31(5):e12631.

[21] Sirolimus versus mycophenolate mofetil for the treatment of lupus nephritis: Results from a real-world CSTAR cohort study

Bai et al., 2025

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[22] The Deacetylase SIRT2 Contributes to Autoimmune Disease Pathogenesis by Modulating IL-17A and IL-2 Transcription.

Hisada et al. Cellular & Molecular Immunology, 2022

vol. 19, no. 6, 2022, pp. 738–750.

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Liao et al., 2022

Journal of the Formosan Medical Association, vol. 121, no. 12, 2022, pp. 2446–2456.

[24] Glutaminase 1 Inhibition Reduces Glycolysis and Ameliorates Lupus-like Disease in MRL/lpr Mice and Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis.

Kono et al. Arthritis & Rheumatology, 2019

vol. 71, no. 11, 2019, pp. 1869–1878.

[25] HIF-1 Regulates Pathogenic Cytotoxic T Cells in Lupus Skin Disease.

Little et al. JCI Insight, 2023

vol. 8, no. 16, 2023, e166076.

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Int J Rheum Dis. 2019 Oct;22(10):1803-1813.

[27] Vitamin D status in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE): A systematic review and meta-analysis

Islam et al., 2019

Autoimmun Rev. 2019 Nov;18(11):102392.

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Amital et al., 2010

Ann Rheum Dis. 2010 Jun;69(6):1155-7.

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Front Pediatr. 2023 Aug 23:11:1228112.

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Arthritis Res Ther. 2012 Oct 17;14(5):R221.

Capítulo 10 · Intestino y mantenimiento de la barrera inmunitaria (36)

[1] The Function and Role of the Th17/Treg Cell Balance in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Yan et al., 2020

J Immunol Res. 2020 Dec 15:2020:8813558.

[2] Peripheral and intestinal regulatory CD4+ CD25(high) T cells in inflammatory bowel disease

Maul et al., 2005

Gastroenterology. 2005 Jun;128(7):1868-78.

[3] Metabolic regulation of the Th17/Treg balance in inflammatory bowel disease

Zhang et al., 2024

Review Pharmacol Res. 2024 May:203:107184. Epub 2024 Apr 12.

[4] mTOR inhibitor INK128 attenuates dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis by promotion of MDSCs on Treg cell expansion

Shi et al., 2019

J Cell Physiol. 2019 Feb;234(2):1618-1629.

[5] mTOR Inhibition Attenuates Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Colitis by Suppressing T Cell Proliferation and Balancing TH1/TH17/Treg Profile

Hu et al., 2016

PLoS One. 2016 Apr 29;11(4):e0154564.

[6] Increased insulin resistance and beta cell activity in patients with Crohn's disease

Bregenzer et al., 2006

Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2006 Jan;12(1):53-6.

[7] Increased pulse wave velocity and relationship with inflammation, insulin, and insulin resistance in inflammatory bowel disease

Korkmaz et al., 2014

Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2014 Jul;26(7):725-32.

[8] Prolonged QT dispersion in inflammatory bowel disease

Yorulmaz et al., 2013

World J Gastroenterol. 2013 Jan 7;19(1):65-71.

[9] Evaluating the triglyceride-glucose index as a biomarker for inflammatory bowel disease risk: insights from a UK Biobank prospective study

Zhang et al., 2025

Front Immunol. 2025 Aug 27:16:1548444.

[10] Activation of PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway triggered by PTEN downregulation in the pathogenesis of Crohn's disease

Long et al., 2013

J Dig Dis. 2013 Dec;14(12):662-9.

[11] The mTOR kinase differentially regulates effector and regulatory T cell lineage commitment

Delgoffe et al., 2009

Immunity. 2009 Jun 19;30(6):832-44.

[12] Expanding human T regulatory cells with the mTOR-inhibitor rapamycin

Battaglia et al., 2012

Methods Mol Biol. 2012:821:279-93.

[13] The colonic epithelium plays an active role in promoting colitis by shaping the tissue cytokine profile

Lyons et al., 2018

PLoS Biol. 2018 Mar 29;16(3):e2002417.

[14] Targeting Mammalian Target of Rapamycin: Prospects for the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

Lashgari et al., 2021

Curr Med Chem. 2021;28(8):1605-1624.

[15] mTOR as a Potential Target for the Treatment of Microbial Infections, Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, and Colorectal Cancer

Afzal et al., 2022

Int J Mol Sci. 2022 Oct 18;23(20):12470.

[16] Therapeutic effect of a new immunosuppressive agent, everolimus, on interleukin-10 gene-deficient mice with colitis

Matsuda et al., 2007

Clin Exp Immunol. 2007 May;148(2):348-59.

[17] Sirolimus ameliorates inflammatory responses by switching the regulatory T/T helper type 17 profile in murine colitis

Yin et al., 2013

Immunology. 2013 Aug;139(4):494-502.

[18] The use of sirolimus (rapamycin) in the management of refractory inflammatory bowel disease in children

Mutalib et al., 2014

J Crohns Colitis. 2014 Dec;8(12):1730-4.

[19] Anti-inflammatory effect of Rhein on ulcerative colitis via inhibiting PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway and regulating gut microbiota

Dong et al., 2022

Phytother Res. 2022 May;36(5):2081-2094.

[20] Glaucocalyxin A alleviates ulcerative colitis by inhibiting PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling

Zhou et al., 2025

Sci Rep. 2025 Feb 24;15(1):6556.

[21] Moringin alleviates DSS-induced ulcerative colitis in mice by regulating Nrf2/NF-κB pathway and PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway

Zhang et al., 2024

Int Immunopharmacol. 2024 Jun 15:134:112241.

[22] Triptolide attenuates LPS-induced activation of RAW 264.7 macrophages by inducing M1-to-M2 repolarization via the mTOR/STAT3 signaling

Zhu et al., 2022

Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol. 2022 Dec;44(6):894-901.

[23] Targeting Immune Cell Metabolism in the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Bittencourt et al., 2021

Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2021 Oct 18;27(10):1684-1693.

[24] mTOR Promotes an Inflammatory Response through the HIF1 Signaling Pathway in Ulcerative Colitis.

Wang et al. International Immunopharmacology, 2024

vol. 134, 2024, article 112217.

[25] Dioscin Ameliorates Murine Ulcerative Colitis by Regulating Macrophage Polarization.

Wu et al. Pharmacological Research, 2021

vol. 172, 2021, article 105796.

[26] Mechanisms of Astragalus Polysaccharide Alleviated Experimental Colitis Involved mTreg Cells and the mTOR/HIF-1α Pathway.

Liu et al. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 2025

vol. 145, 2025, article 110010.

[27] Artesunate Alleviated DSS Induced Colitis via Inhibiting M1 Polarization through Directly Targeting INSR/mTORC1/HIF-1α Pathway.

Huang et al. Phytomedicine, 2026

vol. 150, 2026, article 157752.

[28] Wenyang Decoction Ameliorates DSS-Induced Ulcerative Colitis by Regulating Macrophage Polarization and the PI3K/AKT/mTOR/HIF-1α Signaling Pathway.

Li et al. Mediators of Inflammation, 2026

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[29] Systematic review with meta-analysis: association of vitamin D status with clinical outcomes in adult patients with inflammatory bowel disease

Gubatan et al., 2019

Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2019 Dec;50(11-12):1146-1158.

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Hausmann et al., 2019

J Clin Med. 2019 Aug 27;8(9):1319.

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Nutrients. 2017 Oct 12;9(10):1112.

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Nutrition. 2016 May;32(5):505-14.

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[34] The Role of Vitamin D in Immune System and Inflammatory Bowel Disease

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J Inflamm Res. 2022 May 28;15:3167–3185.

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Clin Transl Gastroenterol. 2013 Apr 18;4(4):e33.

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Capítulo 11 · Esclerosis múltiple y protección del sistema nervioso (34)

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Viglietta et al., 2004

J Exp Med. 2004 Apr 5;199(7):971-9.

[2] Abnormal effector and regulatory T cell subsets in paediatric-onset multiple sclerosis

Mexhitaj et al., 2019

Brain. 2019 Mar 1;142(3):617-632.

[3] Alterations of Thymus-Derived Tregs in Multiple Sclerosis

Lorenzini et al., 2024

Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2024 Jul;11(4):e200251.

[4] Peripheral imbalanced TFH/TFR ratio correlates with intrathecal IgG synthesis in multiple sclerosis at clinical onset

Puthenparampil et al., 2019

Mult Scler. 2019 Jun;25(7):918-926.

[5] Sorafenib inhibits multiple sclerosis by regulating T cell differentiation

Wang et al., 2025

Cell Signal. 2025 Sep:133:111872.

[6] Adoptive Transfer of Regulatory T Cells as a Promising Immunotherapy for the Treatment of Multiple Sclerosis

Duffy et al., 2019

Front Neurosci. 2019 Oct 15:13:1107.

[7] Mechanisms of impaired regulation by CD4(+) CD25(+)FOXP3(+) regulatory T cells in human autoimmune diseases

Buckner, 2010

Nat Rev Immunol. 2010 Dec;10(12):849-59.

[8] Regulatory T cells in autoimmune neuroinflammation

Kleinewietfeld e Hafler, 2014

Immunol Rev. 2014 May;259(1):231-44.

[9] Hyperinsulinemia in newly diagnosed patients with multiple sclerosis

Penesova et al., 2015

Metab Brain Dis. 2015 Aug;30(4):895-901.

[10] Association between insulin resistance and multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Sepidarkish et al., 2024

Metab Brain Dis. 2024 Jun;39(5):1015-1026.

[11] Disability in patients with multiple sclerosis: influence of insulin resistance, adiposity, and oxidative stress

Oliveira et al., 2014

Nutrition. 2014 Mar;30(3):268-73.

[12] Metabolomic profile of insulin resistance in patients with multiple sclerosis is associated to the severity of the disease

Ruiz-Argüelles et al., 2018

Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2018 Oct:25:316-321.

[13] Could the performance of oral glucose tolerance test contribute to the brain health-focused care in multiple sclerosis?

Maric et al., 2020

Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2020 Nov:46:102536.

[14] Insulin resistance, atherogenicity, and iron metabolism in multiple sclerosis with and without depression: Associations with inflammatory and oxidative stress biomarkers and uric acid

Oliveira et al., 2017

Psychiatry Res. 2017 Apr:250:113-120.

[15] The mTOR Signaling Pathway in Multiple Sclerosis; from Animal Models to Human Data

Vakrakou et al., 2022

Int J Mol Sci. 2022 Jul 22;23(15):8077.

[16] Preclinical evaluation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway in animal models of multiple sclerosis

Mammana et al., 2018

Oncotarget. 2018 Jan 3;9(9):8263-8277.

[17] mTOR kinase, a key player in the regulation of glial functions: relevance for the therapy of multiple sclerosis

Dello Russo et al., 2013

Glia. 2013 Mar;61(3):301-11.

[18] The mitochondriogenic but not the immunosuppressant effects of mTOR inhibitors prompt neuroprotection and delay disease evolution in a mouse model of progressive multiple sclerosis

Buonvicino et al., 2024

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Capítulo 12 · Hashimoto y la relación entre inmunidad y función tiroidea (28)

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Xue et al., 2015

Endocrine. 2015 Dec;50(3):665-73.

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Review Endocrine. 2016 Apr;52(1):30-8.

[5] Selenium regulates T cell differentiation in experimental autoimmune thyroiditis in mice

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Capítulo 13 · Diabetes tipo 1 y pérdida de células pancreáticas (30)

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Capítulo 14 · Diabetes de tipo 2 y deterioro metabólico progresivo (96)

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[18] Individual Variations in Glycemic Responses to Carbohydrates and the Underlying Metabolic Physiology

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American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2019;109(5):1302-1309.

[27] Individual Postprandial Glycemic Responses to Different Types of Meals According to Carbohydrate Levels and Their Associations With Glycemic Variability Measured by Continuous Glucose Monitoring

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Journal of the Endocrine Society. 2025;9(7):bvaf081.

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Diabetes. 2012;61(1):4-13.

[67] Hyperinsulinemia: An Early Indicator of Metabolic Dysfunction

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J Endocr Soc. 2019 Jul 24;3(9):1727-1747.

[68] Pancreatic beta-cell specific BAG3 knockout results in chronic hyperinsulinemia inducing insulin resistance

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Mol Metab. 2023 Jun 10;74:101752.

[69] Diabetes: Have We Got It All Wrong? Hyperinsulinism as the Culprit: Surgery Provides the Evidence

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Diabetes Care. 2012;35(12):2438-2442.

[70] Hyperinsulinemia in Obesity, Inflammation, and Cancer

Zhang et al., 2021

Diabetes Metab J. 2021 May;45(3):285-311.

[71] Hyperinsulinemia and Its Pivotal Role in Aging, Obesity, Type 2 Diabetes, Cardiovascular Disease and Cancer

Janssen, 2021

Int J Mol Sci. 2021 Jul 21;22(15):7797.

[72] Identification of IRS-1 Ser-1101 as a target of S6K1 in nutrient- and obesity-induced insulin resistance

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Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007 Aug 20;104(35):14056–14061.

[73] MAP Kinases and mTOR Mediate Insulin-Induced Phosphorylation of Insulin Receptor Substrate-1 on Serine Residues 307, 612 and 632

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Diabetologia. 2003;46(11):1532-1542.

[74] Human and mouse muscle transcriptomic analyses identify insulin receptor mRNA downregulation in hyperinsulinemia-associated insulin resistance

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[75] Chronic Hyperinsulinemia Drives Human Hepatocyte Senescence

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Molecular Metabolism. 2022;64:101558.

[76] Hyperinsulinemia Causes Glomerular Podocyte Injury and Albuminuria Through a Self-Perpetuating GSK3β–IRS1 Insulin Desensitization Circuit

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Metabolism. 2026;179:156571.

[77] Nutrient Overload, Insulin Resistance, and Ribosomal Protein S6 Kinase 1 (S6K1)

Um et al., 2006

Cell Metabolism. 2006;3(6):393-402.

[78] Nutrients Suppress Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase/Akt Signaling via Raptor-Dependent mTOR-Mediated Phosphorylation of Insulin Receptor Substrate 1

Tzatsos e Kandror, 2006

Molecular and Cellular Biology. 2006;26(1):63-76.

[79] The TSC1-2 Tumor Suppressor Controls Insulin– PI3K Signaling via Regulation of IRS Proteins

Harrington et al., 2004

Journal of Cell Biology. 2004;166(2):213-223.

[80] Increased Activation of the Mammalian Target of Rapamycin Pathway in Liver and Skeletal Muscle of Obese Rats: Possible Involvement in Obesity-Linked Insulin Resistance

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Endocrinology. 2005;146(3):1473-1481.

[81] Inappropriate Activation of the TSC/Rheb/mTOR/S6K Cassette Induces IRS1/2 Depletion, Insulin Resistance, and Cell Survival Deficiencies

Shah et al., 2004

Current Biology. 2004;14(18):1650-1656.

[82] Absence of S6K1 Protects Against Age- and Diet-Induced Obesity While Enhancing Insulin Sensitivity

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[83] Regulation of Insulin Signalling by Hyperinsulinaemia: Role of IRS-1/2 Serine Phosphorylation and the mTOR/p70 S6K Pathway

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Diabetologia. 2005;48(3):506-518.

[84] AMPK Exerts Dual Regulatory Effects on the PI3K Pathway

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[85] Downregulation of AMPK Accompanies Leucine- and Glucose-Induced Increases in Protein Synthesis and Insulin Resistance in Rat Skeletal Muscle.

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Diabetes. 2010;59(10):2426-2434.

[86] Palmitate Activates mTOR/p70S6K through AMPK Inhibition and Hypophosphorylation of Raptor in C2C12 Skeletal Muscle Cells: Reversal by Oleate Is Similar to Metformin.

Kwon e Querfurth, 2015

Biochimie. 2015;118:141-150.

[87] The Role of the AMPK/mTOR/S6K1 Signaling Pathway in Mediating the Physiological Process of Exercise-Induced Insulin Sensitization in Skeletal Muscle of C57BL/6 Mice.

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Biochimica et Biophysica Acta – Molecular Basis of Disease. 2012;1822(11):1716-1726.

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Nutrients. 2020;12(4):914.

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PLoS ONE. 2013;8(12):e83264.

[91] HM-Chromanone, a Bioactive Compound from Portulaca oleracea L., Improves Palmitate-Induced Insulin Resistance through Activation of the LKB1/AMPK Signaling Pathway in L6 Skeletal Muscle Cells.

Park e Han, 2022

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[92] Cyanidin-3-O-β-glucoside and protocatechuic acid activate AMPK/mTOR/S6K pathway and improve glucose homeostasis in mice

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[93] Eugenol Ameliorates Hepatic Steatosis and Fibrosis by Downregulating SREBP-1 through the AMPK/mTOR/p70S6K Signaling Pathway.

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Diabetes. 2003;52(1):102-110.

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Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism. 2008;10(Suppl 4):32-42.

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Capítulo 15 · Alzheimer y fragilidad del metabolismo cerebral (98)

[1] Pathological mechanisms and treatment progress in Alzheimer's disease

Zhang et al., 2025

European Journal of Medical Research. 2025;30:625.

[2] Targeting Metabolic Dysregulation in Alzheimer's Disease: A Potential Therapeutic Strategy

Barnwal et al., 2025

Current Drug Metabolism. 2025;26(7):455–471.

[3] Energy Metabolism Dysregulation in Alzheimer's Disease

Yuan et al., 2025

Journal of Neurology. 2025;272:2.

[4] Association of Glucose Metabolism Parameters and Diabetes Status With Alzheimer's Disease Biomarkers Amyloid and Tau: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Van Gils et al., 2024

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 2024;159:105604.

[5] Relationships Between Patterns of Brain Glucose Metabolism and Altered Glycemic Status: A Systematic Review of FDG-PET Studies With Emphasis on Alzheimer's Disease

Soltani et al., 2025

Human Brain Mapping. 2025;46(4):e70180.

[6] The Role of Tau in Alzheimer's Disease and Related Disorders

Medeiros et al., 2011

CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics. 2011;17(5):514–524.

[7] Tau pathology and neurodegeneration contribute to cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's disease

Bejanin et al., 2017

Brain. 2017;140(12):3286–3300.

[8] Alterations in insulin signaling in Alzheimer's disease: current knowledge

Bedse et al., 2015

Frontiers in Neuroscience. 2015;9:204.

[9] Long-term treatment with intranasal insulin ameliorates cognitive impairment, tau hyperphosphorylation, and microglial activation in a streptozotocin-induced Alzheimer's rat model

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Scientific Reports. 2017;7:45971.

[10] Alzheimer's Disease as Type 3 Diabetes: Common Pathophysiological Mechanisms between Alzheimer's Disease and Type 2 Diabetes

Michailidis et al., 2022

International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2022;23(5):2687.

[11] Early-stage Alzheimer's disease is associated with simultaneous systemic and central nervous system dysregulation of insulin-linked metabolic pathways

de la Monte et al., 2019

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[12] Insulin Resistance as a Link between Amyloid-Beta and Tau Pathologies in Alzheimer's Disease

Mullins et al., 2017

Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience. 2017;9:118.

[13] Demonstrated brain insulin resistance in Alzheimer's disease patients is associated with IGF-1 resistance, IRS-1 dysregulation, and cognitive decline

Talbot et al., 2012

Journal of Clinical Investigation. 2012;122(4):1316–1338.

[14] Glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity are impaired in APP/PS1 transgenic mice prior to amyloid plaque pathogenesis and cognitive decline

Macklin et al., 2017

Experimental Gerontology. 2017;88:9–18.

[15] Brain insulin resistance and deficiency as therapeutic targets in Alzheimer's disease

de la Monte, 2012

Current Alzheimer Research. 2012;9(1):35–66.

[16] Role of insulin receptor substrate-1 in the modulation of insulin signaling PI3K/AKT pathway in Alzheimer's disease

Zheng e Wang, 2021

3 Biotech. 2021;11(4):179.

[17] State of the science on brain insulin resistance and cognitive decline due to Alzheimer's disease

Rhea et al., 2024

Aging and Disease. 2024;15(4):1688–1725.

[18] Contributions of brain insulin resistance and deficiency to amyloid-related neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease

de la Monte, 2012

Drugs. 2012;72(1):49–66.

[19] The effects of insulin and insulin-like growth factor I on amyloid precursor protein phosphorylation in in vitro and in vivo models of Alzheimer's disease

Kim et al., 2019

Neurobiology of Disease. 2019;132:104541.

[20] Insulin receptor dysfunction impairs cellular clearance of neurotoxic oligomeric amyloid-beta

Zhao et al., 2009

Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2009;284(28):18742–18753.

[21] Brain insulin resistance accelerates Aβ fibrillogenesis by inducing GM1 ganglioside clustering in the presynaptic membranes

Yamamoto et al., 2012

Journal of Neurochemistry. 2012;121(4):619–628.

[22] Altered processing of amyloid precursor protein in insulin-resistant conditions is mediated by autophagosome accumulation via the inhibition of mammalian target of rapamycin pathway

Son et al., 2012

Diabetes. 2012;61(12):3126–3138.

[23] Mechanism involved in insulin resistance via accumulation of beta-amyloid and neurofibrillary tangles: link between type 2 diabetes and Alzheimer's disease

Rad et al., 2018

Drug Design, Development and Therapy. 2018;12:3999–4021.

[24] Insulin resistance as a mediator of physical activity effects on beta-amyloid accumulation and tau phosphorylation: a scoping review

Slee et al., 2026

Ageing Research Reviews. 2026;114:102956.

[25] Insulin-degrading enzyme regulates the levels of insulin, amyloid β-protein, and the β-amyloid precursor protein intracellular domain in vivo

Farris et al., 2003

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2003;100(7):4162–4167.

[26] Insulin-degrading enzyme as a downstream target of insulin receptor signaling cascade: implications for Alzheimer's disease intervention

Zhao et al., 2004

Journal of Neuroscience. 2004;24(49):11120–11126.

[27] Metformin ameliorates Aβ pathology by insulin-degrading enzyme in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Lu et al., 2020

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 2020;2020:2315106.

[28] Insulin resistance exacerbates Alzheimer disease via multiple mechanisms

Wei et al., 2021

Frontiers in Neuroscience. 2021;15:687157.

[29] Insulin-degrading enzyme: roles and pathways in ameliorating cognitive impairment associated with Alzheimer's disease and diabetes

Tian et al., 2023

Ageing Research Reviews. 2023;90:101999.

[30] Inhibition of insulin-degrading enzyme in human neurons promotes amyloid-β deposition

Rowland et al., 2023

Neuronal Signaling. 2023;7(4):NS20230016.

[31] Activation of mTOR: A culprit of Alzheimer's disease?

Cai et al., 2015

Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment. 2015;11:1015–1030.

[32] Differential Activation of mTOR Complex 1 Signaling in Human Brain with Mild to Severe Alzheimer's Disease

Sun et al., 2014

Journal of Alzheimer's Disease. 2014;38(2):437–444.

[33] Activation of mTOR Signaling Pathway Leads to Cognitive Decline after Orthopedic Surgery in Mice through β-Amyloid Accumulation and Tau Hyperphosphorylation

Shen et al., 2016

Molecular Medicine Reports. 2016;14(4):3925–3934.

[34] Inhibition of mTOR by Rapamycin Abolishes Cognitive Deficits and Reduces Amyloid-β Levels in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Spilman et al., 2010

PLoS ONE. 2010;5(4):e9979.

[35] mTOR Signaling in Alzheimer's Disease and Its Early Phases: Links to Oxidative Damage in the Progression of This Dementia

Perluigi et al., 2021

Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 2021;169:382–396.

[36] mTOR in Down Syndrome: Role in Aβ and Tau Neuropathology and Transition to Alzheimer Disease-Like Dementia

Di Domenico et al., 2018

Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 2018;114:94–101.

[37] Targeting Alzheimer's Disease through the Mammalian Target of Rapamycin (mTOR)

Maiese, 2014

Annals of Medicine. 2014;46(8):587–596.

[38] Brain Insulin Resistance in Down Syndrome: Involvement of the PI3K-AKT/mTOR Axis in Early-Onset Alzheimer's Disease and Its Therapeutic Potential

Azimzadeh et al., 2024

Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 2024;733:150713.

[39] PI3-Kinase/AKT/mTOR Signaling: Impaired On/Off Switches in Ageing, Cognitive Decline and Alzheimer's Disease

O'Neill, 2013

Experimental Gerontology. 2013;48(7):647–653.

[40] Physiologic levels of beta-amyloid activate phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase with the involvement of tyrosine phosphorylation

Luo et al., 1996

Journal of Neurochemistry. 1996;67(3):978–987.

[41] The Role of mTOR Signaling in Alzheimer Disease

Oddo, 2012

Frontiers in Bioscience (Scholar Edition). 2012;4:941–952.

[42] Molecular interplay between mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), amyloid-beta, and Tau: effects on cognitive impairments

Caccamo et al., 2010

J Biol Chem. 2010 Apr 23;285(17):13107-20.

[43] Amyloid β1-42 (Aβ1-42) Induces the CDK2-Mediated Phosphorylation of Tau through the Activation of the mTORC1 Signaling Pathway While Promoting Neuronal Cell Death

Lee et al., 2017

Front Mol Neurosci. 2017 Jul 24:10:229.

[44] Naturally Secreted Amyloid-β Increases Mammalian Target of Rapamycin (mTOR) Activity via a PRAS40-Mediated Mechanism

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Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2011;286(11):8924–8932.

[45] PI3K-AKT-mTOR Signaling Regulates Aβ Oligomer-Induced Neuronal Cell Cycle Events

Bhaskar et al., 2009

Molecular Neurodegeneration. 2009;4:14.

[46] Oligomeric Amyloid β Suppresses Hippocampal Gamma Oscillations through Activation of the mTOR/S6K1 Pathway

Wang et al., 2023

Aging and Disease. 2023;14(4):1390–1406.

[47] Abeta(1-42) modulation of AKT phosphorylation via alpha7 nAChR and NMDA receptors

Abbott et al., 2008

Neurobiology of Aging. 2008;29(7):992–1001.

[48] Aβ1-42 Oligomers Induced a Short-Term Increase of Glutamate Release Prior to Its Depletion As Measured by Amperometry on Single Varicosities

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Analytical Chemistry. 2019;91(23):15123–15129.

[49] Aβ oligomers induce glutamate release from hippocampal neurons

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[50] Soluble oligomers of amyloid Beta protein facilitate hippocampal long-term depression by disrupting neuronal glutamate uptake

Li et al., 2009

Neuron. 2009 Jun 25;62(6):788-801.

[51] Amyloid-β Peptide Decreases Glutamate Uptake in Cultured Astrocytes: Involvement of Oxidative Stress and Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Cascades

Matos et al., 2008

Neuroscience. 2008;156(4):898–910.

[52] Aβ Induces Astrocytic Glutamate Release, Extrasynaptic NMDA Receptor Activation, and Synaptic Loss

Talantova et al., 2013

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2013;110(27):E2518–E2527.

[53] Levetiracetam Inhibits Oligomeric Amyloid-β-Induced Glutamate Release from Human Astrocytes

Sanz-Blasco et al., 2016

NeuroReport. 2016;27(9):705–709.

[54] Activation of the Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase-AKT-Mammalian Target of Rapamycin Signaling Pathway Is Required for Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor-Dependent Long-Term Depression

Hou e Klann, 2004

Journal of Neuroscience, 2004, 24(28):6352–6361.

[55] AMPA Receptor–mTOR Activation is Required for the Antidepressant-Like Effects of Sarcosine during the Forced Swim Test in Rats: Insertion of AMPA Receptor may Play a Role

Chen et al., 2015

Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 2015, 9:162.

[56] Echinacoside Exhibits Antidepressant-Like Effects through AMPAR–AKT/ERK–mTOR Pathway Stimulation and BDNF Expression in Mice

Chuang et al., 2022

Chinese Medicine, 2022, 17(1):9.

[57] Danshensu Interventions Mediate Rapid Antidepressant Effects by Activating the Mammalian Target of Rapamycin Signaling and Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Release

Chuang et al., 2024

Psychiatry Investigation, 2024, 21(11):1286–1298.

[58] Roles of AKT and ERK in mTOR-Dependent Antidepressant Effects of Vanillic Acid

Chuang et al., 2020

ACS Omega, 2020, 5(7):3709–3716.

[59] Potential Protective Roles of Phytochemicals on Glutamate-Induced Neurotoxicity: A Review

Afshari et al., 2020

Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences, 2020, 23(9):1113–1123.

[60] The Neuroprotective Effects of BMSC-Derived Exosomes against Glutamate-Induced HT22 Cell Cytotoxicity

Rong et al., 2024

Neuroscience, 2024, 542:1–10.

[61] Excitotoxic Glutamate Causes Neuronal Insulin Resistance by Inhibiting Insulin Receptor/AKT/mTOR Pathway

Pomytkin et al., 2019

Molecular Brain, 2019, 12(1):112.

[62] Nutrient Overload, Insulin Resistance, and Ribosomal Protein S6 Kinase 1, S6K1

Um et al., 2006

Cell Metabolism, 2006, 3(6):393–402.

[63] Identification of Ser-1101 in IRS-1 as a Target of S6K1 in Nutrient- and Obesity-Induced Insulin Resistance

Tremblay et al., 2007

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2007, 104(35):14056–14061.

[64] Inappropriate Activation of the TSC/Rheb/mTOR/S6K Cassette Induces IRS1/2 Depletion, Insulin Resistance, and Cell Survival Deficiencies

Shah et al., 2004

Current Biology, 2004, 14(18):1650–1656.

[65] Saturated Fatty Acids Induce Insulin Resistance in Podocytes through Inhibition of IRS1 via Activation of Both IKKβ and mTORC1

Denhez et al., 2020

Scientific Reports, 2020, 10(1):21628.

[66] AKT signaling pathway: a potential therapy for Alzheimer's disease through glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta inhibition

Limantoro et al., 2023

Egyptian Journal of Neurology, Psychiatry and Neurosurgery, 2023, 59:147.

[67] Dysregulation of insulin signaling, glucose transporters, O-GlcNAcylation, and phosphorylation of tau and neurofilaments in the brain: implication for Alzheimer's disease

Deng et al., 2009

The American Journal of Pathology, 2009, 175(5):2089–2098.

[68] Diabetes mellitus and Alzheimer's disease: GSK-3β as a potential link

Zhang et al., 2018

Behavioural Brain Research, 2018, 339:57–65.

[69] Glycogen synthase kinase-3 signaling in Alzheimer's disease

Lauretti et al., 2020

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) – Molecular Cell Research, 2020, 1867(5):118664.

[70] Neuroprotective effects of regulators of the glycogen synthase kinase-3β signaling pathway in a transgenic model of Alzheimer's disease are associated with reduced amyloid precursor protein phosphorylation

Rockenstein et al., 2007

The Journal of Neuroscience, 2007, 27(8):1981–1991.

[71] Gypenoside IX restores AKT/GSK-3β pathway and alleviates Alzheimer's disease-like neuropathology and cognitive deficits

Lei et al., 2023

Aging (Albany NY), 2023, 15(23):14172– 14191.

[72] GSK3: A potential target and pending issues for treatment of Alzheimer's disease

Zhao et al., 2024

CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics, 2024, 30(7):e14818.

[73] The role of glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta in neurodegenerative diseases

Yu et al., 2023

Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience, 2023, 16:1209703.

[74] Decoding Alzheimer's disease from perturbed cerebral glucose metabolism: implications for diagnostic and therapeutic strategies

Chen et al., 2013

Progress in Neurobiology, 2013, 108:21–43.

[75] Brain glucose hypometabolism and oxidative stress in preclinical Alzheimer's disease

Mosconi et al., 2008

Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 2008, 1147:180–195.

[76] Evidence for brain glucose dysregulation in Alzheimer's disease

An et al., 2018

Alzheimer's & Dementia, 2018, 14(3):318–329.

[77] Reduction of Glycolysis Intermediate Concentrations in the Cerebrospinal Fluid of Alzheimer's Disease Patients

Bergau et al., 2019

Frontiers in Neuroscience, 2019, 13:871.

[78] Brain cells derived from Alzheimer's disease patients have multiple specific innate abnormalities in energy metabolism

Ryu et al., 2021

Molecular Psychiatry, 2021, 26(10):5702–5714.

[79] Hypometabolism, Alzheimer's disease, and possible therapeutic targets: an overview

Raut et al., 2023

Cells, 2023, 12(16):2019.

[80] A cross-sectional comparison of brain glucose and ketone metabolism in cognitively healthy older adults, mild cognitive impairment and early Alzheimer's disease

Croteau et al., 2018

Experimental Gerontology, 2018, 107:18–26.

[81] Glucose transporter 3 in neuronal glucose metabolism: Health and diseases

Peng et al., 2021

Metabolism, 2021, 123:154869.

[82] Decreased glucose transporters correlate to abnormal hyperphosphorylation of tau in Alzheimer disease

Liu et al., 2008

FEBS Letters, 2008, 582(2):359–364.

[83] GLUT1 reductions exacerbate Alzheimer's disease vasculo-neuronal dysfunction and degeneration

Winkler et al., 2015

Zuniga E, De Vivo DC, Zlokovic BV. Nature Neuroscience, 2015, 18(4):521–530.

[84] A Systematic Review of Glucose Transport Alterations in Alzheimer's Disease

Kyrtata et al., 2021

Frontiers in Neuroscience, 2021, 15:626636.

[85] Interplay of Glut1 alteration and Alzheimer's disease: A narrative review on glucose transport and energy metabolism

Fakorede et al., 2025

Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 2025, 108(2):470–486.

[86] Regular Exercise Enhances Cognitive Function and Intracerebral GLUT Expression in Alzheimer's Disease Model Mice

Pang et al., 2019

Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 2019, 72(1):83–96.

[87] Regulation of hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha expression and function by the mammalian target of rapamycin

Hudson et al., 2002

Molecular and Cellular Biology, 2002, 22(20):7004–7014.

[88] Insulin stimulates hypoxia-inducible factor 1 through a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/target of rapamycin-dependent signaling pathway

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Journal of Biological Chemistry, 2002, 277(31):27975–27981.

[89] Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling controls levels of hypoxia-inducible factor 1

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Cell Growth & Differentiation, 2001, 12(7):363–369. PMID: 11457733.

[90] Insulin activates hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha in human and rat vascular smooth muscle cells via phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase and mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways: impairment in insulin resistance owing to defects in insulin signalling

Doronzo et al., 2006

Diabetologia, 2006, 49(5):1049–1063.

[91] The dual PI3K/mTOR inhibitor NVP-BEZ235 suppresses hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α expression by blocking protein translation and increases cell death under hypoxia

Karar et al., 2012

Cancer Biology & Therapy, 2012, 13(11):1102–1111.

[92] Bortezomib represses HIF-1α protein expression and nuclear accumulation by inhibiting both PI3K/AKT/TOR and MAPK pathways in prostate cancer cells

Befani et al., 2012

Journal of Molecular Medicine, 2012, 90(1):45–54.

[93] Regulation of glut1 mRNA by Hypoxia-inducible Factor-1: Interaction between H-ras and Hypoxia

Chen et al., 2001

Journal of Biological Chemistry, 2001, 276(12):9519–9525.

[94] Hypoxia regulation of facilitated glucose transporter-1 and glucose transporter-3 in mouse chondrocytes mediated by HIF-1α

Ren et al., 2008

Joint Bone Spine, 2008, 75(2):176–181.

[95] IGF-1 induces hypoxia-inducible factor 1α-mediated GLUT3 expression through PI3K/AKT/mTOR dependent pathways in PC12 cells

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Brain Research, 2012, 1430:18–24.

[96] Hypoxia preconditioning protects neuronal cells against traumatic brain injury through stimulation of glucose transport mediated by HIF-1α/GLUTs signaling pathway in rat

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Neurosurgical Review, 2021, 44(1):411–422.

[97] Glucose Metabolic Dysfunction in Neurodegenerative Diseases—New Mechanistic Insights and the Potential of Hypoxia as a Prospective Therapy Targeting Metabolic Reprogramming

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International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2021, 22(11):5887.

[98] HIF-1α integrates lipogenic FASN and glycolytic GLUT3 to overcome intratumor oxidative and hypoxic stress for colorectal cancer metastasis

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Oncogene, 2026, 45:2671–2682.

Capítulo 16 · Tumores y organización del microambiente metabólico (169)

[1] Global cancer statistics 2022: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries

Bray et al., 2024

CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 2024, 74(3):229–263.

[2] Association between hyperinsulinemia and increased risk of cancer death in nonobese and obese people: A population-based observational study

Tsujimoto et al., 2017

International Journal of Cancer, 2017, 141(1):102–111.

[3] Increased cancer mortality among Japanese individuals with hyperinsulinemia

Kira et al., 2020

Metabolism Open, 2020, 7:100048.

[4] Hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance and colorectal adenomas: A meta-analysis

Yoon et al., 2015

Metabolism, 2015, 64(10):1324–1333.

[5] Association between markers of glucose metabolism and risk of colorectal cancer

Xu et al., 2016

BMJ Open, 2016, 6(6):e011430.

[6] Association of Diet-Induced Hyperinsulinemia With Accelerated Growth of Prostate Cancer (LNCaP) Xenografts

Venkateswaran et al., 2007

Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 2007, 99(23):1793–1800.

[7] Endogenous Hyperinsulinemia Contributes to Pancreatic Cancer Development

Zhang et al., 2019

Cell Metabolism, 2019, 30(3):403–404.

[8] Association of insulinemic and inflammatory dietary potential with risk of liver cancer and chronic liver disease mortality in postmenopausal women: a prospective cohort study

Zhang et al., 2023

The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2023, 118(3):530–537.

[9] Inflammatory and insulinemic dietary and lifestyle patterns and incidence of endometrial cancer: the multiethnic cohort

Habeshian et al., 2025

The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2025, 121(6):1236–1245.

[10] Post-diagnosis dietary insulinemic potential and survival outcomes among colorectal cancer patients

Tabung et al., 2020

BMC Cancer, 2020, 20(1):817.

[11] Risk of malignancies in patients with diabetes treated with human insulin or insulin analogues: a cohort study

Hemkens et al., 2009

Diabetologia, 2009, 52(9):1732–1744.

[12] Recent Advances in Dual PI3K/mTOR Inhibitors for Tumour Treatment

Wu et al., 2022

Frontiers in Pharmacology, 2022, 13:875372.

[13] The Role of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR Axis in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Jiang et al., 2024

Biomedicines, 2024, 12(7):1610.

[14] PI3K-Akt-mTOR inhibition by GNE-477 inhibits renal cell carcinoma cell growth in vitro and in vivo

Ye et al., 2020

Aging (Albany NY), 2020, 12(10):9489–9499.

[15] PI3K-PKB-mTOR hyperactivation in relation to nasopharyngeal carcinoma progression and prognosis

Yu et al., 2019

Journal of Cellular Biochemistry, 2019, 120(6):10186–10194.

[16] Molecular heterogeneity and individualized therapeutic targets of oral squamous cell carcinoma: A study of PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway and PD-L1 expression

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[165] Echinacoside regulates the PI3K/AKT/HIF-1α/VEGF cross-talk signaling axis in breast cancer proliferation and apoptosis

Liang et al., 2024

Analytical Biochemistry, 2024, 684:115360.

[166] JAM3 promotes cervical cancer metastasis by activating the HIF-1α/VEGFA pathway

Peng et al., 2024

BMC Women’s Health, 2024, 24(1):293.

[167] Epithelial-mesenchymal transition and angiogenesis mediated by the HIF-1α/VEGF signaling pathway are critically involved in the anti-metastatic effect of luteolin in melanoma cells

Li et al., 2019

Phytotherapy Research, 2019, 33(3):798–807.

[168] Arsenic sulfide inhibits hepatocellular carcinoma metastasis by suppressing the HIF-1α/VEGF signaling pathway

Lu et al., 2023

Frontiers in Bioscience-Landmark, 2023, 28(7):152.

[169] KIF4A promotes malignant progression of glioblastoma and transmits temozolomide resistance in the tumor microenvironment through the HIF-1Α/VEGFA axis

Shen et al., 2025

CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics, 2025, 31(10):e70550.

Capítulo 17 · Aterosclerosis y protección de la pared vascular (104)

[1] Global cancer statistics 2022: GLOBOCAN 1. The prevalence of carotid subclinical atherosclerosis according to age: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the young to middle-age

Johri et al., 2026

J Clin Lipidol, 2026, 20(2):250-261.

[2] Prevalence of Subclinical Coronary Artery Atherosclerosis in the General Population

Bergström et al., 2021

Circulation, 2021, 144(12):916-929.

[3] Vascular actions of insulin with implications for endothelial dysfunction

Potenza et al., 2009

Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 2009, 297(3)

[4] Role of insulin resistance in endothelial dysfunction

Muniyappa e Sowers, 2013

Rev Endocr Metab Disord, 2013, 14(1):5-12.

[5] Effect of Endothelium-Specific Insulin Resistance on Endothelial Function In Vivo

Duncan et al., 2008

Diabetes, 2008, 57(12):3307-3314.

[6] Obesity/insulin resistance is associated with endothelial dysfunction. Implications for the syndrome of insulin resistance

Steinberg et al., 1996

J Clin Invest, 1996, 97(11):2601-2610.

[7] Insulin Enhances Endothelial Function Throughout the Arterial Tree in Healthy But Not Metabolic Syndrome Subjects

Jahn et al., 2016

J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2016, 101(3):1198-1206.

[8] Metabolic actions of angiotensin II and insulin: a microvascular endothelial balancing act

Muniyappa e Yavuz, 2013

Mol Cell Endocrinol, 2013, 378(1-2):59-69.

[9] An integrated view of insulin resistance and endothelial dysfunction

Muniyappa et al., 2008

Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am, 2008, 37(3):685-711.

[10] Insulin resistance and endothelial function in children and adolescents

Miniello et al., 2014

Int J Cardiol, 2014, 174(2):343-347.

[11] Increased body fat and reduced insulin sensitivity are associated with impaired endothelial function and subendocardial viability in healthy, non-Hispanic white adolescents

Hoffman et al., 2019

Pediatr Diabetes, 2019, 20(7):842-848.

[12] Insulin therapy improves insulin-stimulated endothelial function in patients with type 2 diabetes and ischemic heart disease

Rask-Madsen et al., 2001

Diabetes, 2001, 50(11):2611-2618.

[13] Association between the homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance and coronary artery calcification: a meta-analysis of observational studies

Li et al., 2023

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[14] Associations between insulin resistance indices and subclinical atherosclerosis: A contemporary review

Scott et al., 2024

Am J Prev Cardiol, 2024, 18:100676.

[15] Association between triglyceride-glucose index and carotid atherosclerosis in Chinese steelworkers: a cross-sectional study

Cao et al., 2025

Sci Rep, 2025, 15:3827.

[16] Triglyceride-glucose index is associated with atherosclerosis in patients with symptomatic coronary artery disease, regardless of diabetes mellitus and hyperlipidaemia

Li et al., 2023

Cardiovasc Diabetol, 2023, 22(1):224.

[17] Association Between Triglyceride-Glucose Index and Carotid Plaque Stability in Different Glycemic Status: A Single-Center Retrospective Study

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J Am Heart Assoc, 2025, 14(3)

[18] Loss of insulin signaling in vascular endothelial cells accelerates atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E null mice

Rask-Madsen et al., 2010

Cell Metab, 2010, 11(5):379-389.

[19] Insulin decreases atherosclerosis by inducing endothelin receptor B expression

Park et al., 2016

JCI Insight, 2016, 1(6)

[20] Exogenous Insulin Infusion Can Decrease Atherosclerosis in Diabetic Rodents by Improving Lipids, Inflammation, and Endothelial Function

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Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 2018, 38(1):92-101.

[21] Insulin's actions on vascular tissues: Physiological effects and pathophysiological contributions to vascular complications of diabetes

Fu et al., 2021

Mol Metab, 2021, 52:101236.

[22] Endothelial dysfunction due to selective insulin resistance in vascular endothelium: insights from mechanistic modeling

Muniyappa et al., 2020

Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 2020, 319(3)

[23] Inhibition of insulin signaling in endothelial cells by protein kinase C-induced phosphorylation of p85 subunit of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)

Maeno et al., 2012

J Biol Chem, 2012, 287(7):4518-4530.

[24] The hydroxamic acid derivative YPX-C-05 alleviates hypertension and vascular dysfunction through the PI3K/AKT/eNOS pathway

Pang et al., 2024

Vascul Pharmacol, 2024, 154:107251.

[25] Exogenous hydrogen sulfide activates the PI3K/AKT/eNOS pathway to ameliorate replicative senescence in human umbilical vein endothelial cells

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Cardiol Res Pract, 2023, 2023:7296874.

[26] Curcumae Longae Rhizoma extract suppresses angiogenesis via VEGF-induced PI3K/AKT-eNOS-NO pathway

Guo et al., 2023

J Ethnopharmacol, 2023, 308:116299.

[27] Insulin resistance compromises cellular integrity, mitochondrial function and inflammatory signaling in lymphatic endothelium

Lee et al., 2018

Microcirculation, 2018, 25(7)

[28] The role of the Ca2+/PI3K/AKT/eNOS/NO pathway in astragaloside IV-induced inhibition of angiotensin II-triggered endothelial inflammation

Zhang et al., 2024

Mediators Inflamm, 2024, 2024:3193950.

[29] Nitric oxide regulates vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 gene expression and redox-sensitive transcriptional events in human vascular endothelial cells

Khan et al., 1996

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[30] The prominent role of NF-κB in the induction of endothelial activation by endogenous nitric oxide inhibition

Lazzerini et al., 2009

Nitric Oxide, 2009, 21(3-4):184-191.

[31] Vasoprotective effects of xanthotoxin and its mechanism of action in rat aorta and human vascular endothelial cells

Cao et al., 2020

J Vasc Res, 2020, 57(6):313-324.

[32] Progranulin protects vascular endothelium against atherosclerotic inflammatory reaction via AKT/eNOS and nuclear factor-κB pathways

Hwang et al., 2013

PLoS One, 2013, 8(9)

[33] Insulin inhibits leukocyte-endothelium adherence via an AKT-NO-dependent mechanism in myocardial ischemia/reperfusion

Li et al., 2009

J Mol Cell Cardiol, 2009, 47(4):512-519.

[34] Celiprolol activates eNOS through the PI3K-AKT pathway and inhibits VCAM-1 via NF-κB induced by oxidative stress

Kobayashi et al., 2003

Hypertension, 2003, 42(5):1004-1013.

[35] CTRP3 attenuates the inflammatory response and endothelial dysfunction induced by ox-LDL in mouse aortic endothelial cells by activating the PI3K/AKT/eNOS pathway

Chen et al., 2019

Inflammation, 2019, 42(4):1350-1359.

[36] Experimental and molecular docking studies demonstrate that 1,25-D3 protects against diabetic brain injury through the GLP-1R/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway

Song et al., 2025

Mediators Inflamm, 2025, 2025:8217035.

[37] Biological effect of licochalcone C on the regulation of PI3K/AKT/eNOS and NF-κB/iNOS/NO signaling pathways in H9c2 cells in response to LPS stimulation

Franceschelli et al., 2017

Int J Mol Sci, 2017, 18(4):690.

[38] Systemic insulin sensitivity, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particle size, and oxidized LDL in overweight, nondiabetic men

Ho et al., 2002

Metabolism, 2002, 51(11):1478-1483.

[39] Relation of circulating oxidized LDL to obesity and insulin resistance in children

Kelly et al., 2010

Pediatr Diabetes, 2010, 11(8):552-555.

[40] Co-existence of insulin resistance and high concentrations of circulating oxidized LDL lipids

Linna et al., 2015

Ann Med, 2015, 47(5):394-398.

[41] The effect of 75 g of glucose during OGTT on plasma markers of lipid and lipoprotein peroxidation, oxidized LDL and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, in people with increased body mass

Bielawska et al., 2023

Metabolites, 2023, 13(4):483.

[42] Relationship between serum oxidized lipoprotein levels, circulating myeloperoxidase and paraoxonase 1 levels, and diet in young subjects with insulin resistance

Marchán-Figueroa et al., 2024

Nutrients, 2024, 16(22):3930.

[43] Effects of a lifestyle intervention on cardiometabolic risk factors and oxidized lipoproteins in obese adolescents with prediabetes

Rentería-Mexía et al., 2019

Public Health Nutr, 2019, 22(4):706-713.

[44] Carotid intima-media thickness is lower after sleeve gastrectomy with concomitant changes in oxidized LDL and PAI-1

Hany et al., 2026

Obes Surg, 2026, 36:1414-1426.

[45] Oxidized lipoproteins and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: A 5-year cohort study of β-cell dysfunction and prediabetes progression

Gu et al., 2026

Diabetes Obes Metab, 2026, 28(5):3632-3643.

[46] Inhibition of low-density lipoprotein oxidation by nitric oxide. Potential role in atherogenesis

Hogg et al., 1993

FEBS Lett, 1993, 334(2):170-174.

[47] The effect of nitric oxide release rates on the oxidation of human low density lipoprotein

Goss et al., 1997

J Biol Chem, 1997, 272(34):21647-21653.

[48] Autoinhibition of murine macrophage-mediated oxidation of low-density lipoprotein by nitric oxide synthesis

Jessup e Dean, 1993

Atherosclerosis, 1993, 101(2):145-155.

[49] Inhibitory effect of inducible type nitric oxide synthase on oxidative modification of low density lipoprotein by vascular smooth muscle cells

Rikitake et al., 1998

Atherosclerosis, 1998, 136(1):51-57.

[50] Angiopoietin-2 confers atheroprotection in apoE−/− mice by inhibiting LDL oxidation via nitric oxide

Ahmed et al., 2009

Circ Res, 2009, 104(12):1333-1336.

[51] Chronic treatment with nitric oxide-releasing aspirin reduces plasma low-density lipoprotein oxidation and oxidative stress, arterial oxidation-specific epitopes, and atherogenesis in hypercholesterolemic mice

Napoli et al., 2002

Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2002, 99(19):12467-12470.

[52] L-arginine improves endothelial function and reduces LDL oxidation in patients with stable coronary artery disease

Yin et al., 2005

Clin Nutr, 2005, 24(6):988-997.

[53] Role of endothelial dysfunction in atherosclerosis

Davignon e Ganz, 2004

Circulation, 2004, 109(23 Suppl 1)

[54] Oxidized LDL binds to CD36 on human monocyte-derived macrophages and transfected cell lines. Evidence implicating the lipid moiety of the lipoprotein as the binding site

Nicholson et al., 1995

Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 1995, 15(2):269-275.

[55] Comparative investigation on the sizes and scavenger receptor binding of human native and modified lipoprotein particles with atomic force microscopy

Gan et al., 2018

J Nanobiotechnology, 2018, 16(1):25.

[56] The binding of oxidized low density lipoprotein to mouse CD36 is mediated in part by oxidized phospholipids that are associated with both the lipid and protein moieties of the lipoprotein

Boullier et al., 2000

J Biol Chem, 2000, 275(13):9163-9169.

[57] Structural Insights into Oxidized Phospholipid Recognition and Translocation by CD36 Using Mass Spectrometry, Molecular Docking, Dynamics, and Metadynamics Simulations

Gao et al., 2025

J Am Chem Soc, 2025, 147(51):46871-46885.

[58] Mouse CD36 has opposite effects on LDL and oxidized LDL metabolism in vivo

Luangrath et al., 2008

Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 2008, 28(7):1290-1295.

[59] A CD36-dependent signaling cascade is necessary for macrophage foam cell formation

Rahaman et al., 2006

Cell Metab, 2006, 4(3):211-221.

[60] Oxidized LDL-bound CD36 recruits an Na+/K+-ATPase-Lyn complex in macrophages that promotes atherosclerosis

Chen et al., 2015

Sci Signal, 2015, 8(393)

[61] Oxidized LDL stimulates PKM2-mediated mtROS production and phagocytosis

Zhang et al., 2025

J Lipid Res, 2025, 66(5):100809.

[62] Contribution of hyperglycemia and oxidized LDL to macrophage inflammation: a role for PRAS40/AKT-dependent soluble CD14 shedding

Sanjurjo et al., 2023

Antioxidants (Basel), 2023, 12(5):1083.

[63] OxLDL primes platelets for enhanced extracellular vesicle formation capable of fine-tuning macrophage gene expression

Maaninka et al., 2023

Eur J Cell Biol, 2023, 102(2):151311.

[64] CD36, a scavenger receptor implicated in atherosclerosis

Park, 2014

Exp Mol Med, 2014, 46(6)

[65] Targeted disruption of the class B scavenger receptor CD36 protects against atherosclerotic lesion development in mice

Febbraio et al., 2000

J Clin Invest, 2000, 105(8):1049-1056.

[66] Absence of CD36 protects against atherosclerosis in ApoE knock-out mice with no additional protection provided by absence of scavenger receptor A I/II

Kuchibhotla et al., 2008

Cardiovasc Res, 2008, 78(1):185-196.

[67] Inhibition of macrophage CD36 expression and cellular oxidized low density lipoprotein (oxLDL) accumulation by tamoxifen: a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)γ-dependent mechanism

Yu et al., 2016

J Biol Chem, 2016, 291(33):16977-16989.

[68] Salvianolic acid B inhibits macrophage uptake of modified low density lipoprotein (mLDL) in a scavenger receptor CD36-dependent manner

Bao et al., 2012

Atherosclerosis, 2012, 223(1):152-159.

[69] Macrophage PIM1 promotes atherosclerosis by enhancing foam cell formation through CD36

Beg et al., 2026

Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 2026;46(9):e324938.

[70] Lipid-induced insulin resistance is associated with increased monocyte expression of scavenger receptor CD36 and internalization of oxidized LDL

Kashyap et al., 2009

Obesity (Silver Spring), 2009, 17(12):2142-2148.

[71] Overexpression of CD36: a possible etiopathogenic mechanism of atherosclerosis in patients with prediabetes and diabetes

Lopez-Carmona et al., 2017

Diabetol Metab Syndr, 2017, 9:55.

[72] Nicotine potentiates proatherogenic effects of oxLDL by stimulating and upregulating macrophage CD36 signaling

Zhou et al., 2013

Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, 2013, 305(4)

[73] Oleic acid induces smooth muscle foam cell formation and enhances atherosclerotic lesion development via CD36

Ma et al., 2011

Lipids Health Dis, 2011, 10:53.

[74] Platelet CD36 links hyperlipidemia, oxidant stress and a prothrombotic phenotype

Podrez et al., 2007

Nat Med, 2007, 13(9):1086-1095.

[75] Fc receptor γ-chain mediates CD36-induced platelet activation and thrombosis by oxidized low-density lipoprotein

Wraith et al., 2025

Blood Adv, 2025, 9(22):5774-5786.

[76] Oxidized LDL activates blood platelets through CD36/NOX2-mediated inhibition of the cGMP/protein kinase G signaling cascade

Magwenzi et al., 2015

Blood, 2015, 125(17):2693-2703.

[77] Atherogenic lipid stress induces platelet hyperactivity through CD36-mediated hyposensitivity to prostacyclin: the role of phosphodiesterase 3A

Berger et al., 2020

Haematologica, 2020, 105(3):808-819.

[78] Elevated glycosylation of CD36 in platelets is a risk factor for oxLDL-mediated platelet activation in type 2 diabetes

Agarwal et al., 2024

FEBS J, 2024, 291(2):376-391.

[79] LDL cholesterol and platelets: insights into their interactions in atherosclerosis

Gąsecka et al., 2021

Life (Basel), 2021, 11(1):39.

[80] Effects of antiplatelet agents and tyrosine kinase inhibitors on oxLDL-mediated platelet procoagulant activity

Zheng et al., 2023

Blood Adv, 2023, 7(8):1366-1378.

[81] Co-stimulation of PAFR and CD36 is required for oxLDL-induced human macrophages activation

Rios et al., 2012

PLoS One, 2012, 7(5)

[82] PKCδ signalling regulates SR-A and CD36 expression and foam cell formation

Lin et al., 2012

Cardiovasc Res, 2012, 95(3):346-355.

[83] The fatty acid receptor CD36 promotes HCC progression through activating Src/PI3K/AKT axis-dependent aerobic glycolysis

Luo et al., 2021

Cell Death Dis, 2021, 12(4):328.

[84] Apolipoprotein C-II induces EMT to promote gastric cancer peritoneal metastasis via PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway

Wang et al., 2021

Clin Transl Med, 2021, 11(8)

[85] Salvianolic acid B attenuates inflammation and prevents pathological fibrosis by inhibiting CD36-mediated PI3K-AKT signaling pathway activation in frozen shoulder

Yan et al., 2023

Front Pharmacol, 2023, 14:1230174.

[86] Oleic acid stimulates HC11 mammary epithelial cells proliferation and mammary gland development in peripubertal mice through the activation of CD36-Ca2+ and PI3K/AKT signaling pathway

Meng et al., 2018

Oncotarget, 2018, 9(16):12982-12994.

[87] Lnc001209 participates in aluminum-induced PC12 cell apoptosis by regulating PI3K-AKT-mTOR signaling pathway

Li et al., 2023

Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 2023, 259:115062.

[88] Strongylocentrotus nudus egg polysaccharide regulates intestinal epithelial autophagy through CD36/PI3K-AKT signaling pathway, thereby contributing to the amelioration of inflammatory bowel disease

Zhou et al., 2023

Int J Biol Macromol, 2023, 244:125373.

[89] Clarifying the Distinct Roles of Smooth Muscle Cell-Derived and Macrophage-Derived Foam Cells in Atherosclerosis and Their Implications

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Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 2021, 41(6):2035-2037.

[90] Intermedin inhibits macrophage foam-cell formation via tristetraprolin-mediated decay of CD36 mRNA

Dai et al., 2014

Cardiovasc Res, 2014, 101(2):297-305.

[91] Insulin promotes macrophage foam cell formation: potential implications in diabetes-related atherosclerosis

Park et al., 2012

Lab Invest, 2012, 92(8):1171-1180.

[92] Zdhhc1 deficiency attenuates foam cell formation and atherosclerosis by inhibiting PI3K-AKT-mTOR signaling through facilitating nuclear translocation of p110α

Zhou et al., 2025

Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis, 2025, 1871(2):167577.

[93] Rutin inhibits ox-LDL-mediated macrophage inflammation and foam cell formation by inducing autophagy and modulating PI3K/AKT signaling

Li et al., 2022

Molecules, 2022, 27(13):4201.

[94] CXCR4 blockade promotes macrophage autophagy through the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway to alleviate coronary heart disease

Li et al., 2023

Int J Cardiol, 2023, 392:131303.

[95] Macrophage CD147 blockade protects against foam cell formation in atherosclerosis

Lv et al., 2021

Front Cell Dev Biol, 2021, 8:609090.

[96] Increased CD36 protein as a response to defective insulin signaling in macrophages

Liang et al., 2004

J Clin Invest, 2004, 113(5):764-773.

[97] Oxidized LDL impair adipocyte response to insulin by activating serine/threonine kinases

Scazzocchio et al., 2009

J Lipid Res, 2009, 50(5):832-845.

[98] A CD36-dependent pathway enhances macrophage and adipose tissue inflammation and impairs insulin signalling

Kennedy et al., 2011

Cardiovasc Res, 2011, 89(3):604-613.

[99] Oxidized LDL modify the human adipocyte phenotype to an insulin resistant, proinflammatory and proapoptotic profile

Santiago-Fernández et al., 2020

Biomolecules, 2020, 10(4):534.

[100] CD36/ANXA1/TLR4/NF-κB axis orchestrates lipid metabolism, chronic inflammation and insulin resistance in obese children

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Immunol Lett, 2026, 280:107184.

[101] Enhanced EC CD36 signaling promotes skeletal muscle insulin resistance in female mice

Dada et al., 2024

Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 2024, 327(4)

[102] CD36 aggravates obesity-related vascular injury by promoting endoplasmic reticulum stress and impairing endothelial insulin signaling

Xu et al., 2026

Cell Signal, 2026, 146:112643.

[103] Regulation of insulin receptor pathway and glucose metabolism by CD36 signaling

Samovski et al., 2018

Diabetes, 2018, 67(7):1272-1284.

[104] Differential roles of CD36 in regulating muscle insulin response depend on palmitic acid load

Sun et al., 2023

Biomedicines, 2023, 11(3):729.

Capítulo 18 · La calidad alimentaria en la prevención diaria (55)

[1] Association of glycemic index and glycemic load with type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and all-cause mortality: a meta-analysis of mega cohorts of more than 100,000 participants.

Jenkins et al., 2024

The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology. 2024;12(2):107-118.

[2] Dietary glycemic index, glycemic load and all-cause and cause-specific mortality: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.

Kim e Je, 2023

Clinical Nutrition. 2023;42(10):1827-1838.

[3] Dietary glycemic index, glycemic load and cause-specific mortality: two population-based prospective cohort studies.

Zhao et al., 2022

European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2022;76(8):1142-1149.

[4] Dietary glycemic index, glycemic load, and mortality: a prospective study in Japan Public Health Center-based cohorts.

Huang et al., 2021

European Journal of Nutrition. 2021;60:4607-4620.

[5] Glycemic Index, Glycemic Load, and Cardiovascular Disease and Mortality.

Jenkins et al., 2021

New England Journal of Medicine. 2021;384(14):1312-1322.

[6] Dietary Insulinemic Potential and Risk of Total and Cause-Specific Mortality in the Nurses' Health Study and Health Professionals Follow-up Study.

Wan et al., 2022

Diabetes Care. 2022;45(2):451-459.

[7] Association between dietary insulin and glycemic indices and the risk of type 2 diabetes.

Teymoori et al., 2021

Clinical Nutrition. 2021;40(4):2138-2144.

[8] Associations of glycaemic index and glycaemic load with type 2 diabetes in 127,594 people from 20 countries (PURE): a prospective cohort study.

Miller et al., 2024

The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology. 2024;12(5):330-338.

[9] Dietary Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: Updated Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies.

Livesey et al., 2019

Nutrients. 2019;11(6):1280.

[10] Dietary Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load and the Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: Assessment of Causal Relations.

Livesey et al., 2019

Nutrients. 2019;11(6):1436.

[11] Low glycaemic index diets favourably affect the progression and regression of prediabetes: a prospective cohort study.

He, 2018

Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics. 2018;31(3):292-300.

[12] Coronary Heart Disease and Dietary Carbohydrate, Glycemic Index, and Glycemic Load: Dose-Response Meta-analyses of Prospective Cohort Studies.

Livesey e Livesey., 2019

Mayo Clinic Proceedings: Innovations, Quality & Outcomes. 2019;3(1):52-69.

[13] Dietary Glycemic Load, Glycemic Index and Risk of Cerebrovascular Disease in the EPICOR Cohort.

Sieri et al., 2013

PLoS One. 2013;8(5):e62625.

[14] Dietary Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load in Relation to Atherosclerotic Stenosis of the Carotid Arteries and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Patients with Ischemic Stroke.

Peng et al., 2020

Journal of Atherosclerosis and Thrombosis. 2020;27(11):1152-1159.

[15] Dietary Glycemic Index, Glycemic Load, and Refined Carbohydrates Are Associated with Risk of Stroke: A Prospective Cohort Study in Urban Chinese Women.

Yu et al., 2016

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2016;104(5):1345-1351.

[16] High Dietary Glycemic Load Was Associated with the Presence and Severity of Cerebral Small Vessel Diseases in Acute Ischemic Stroke Patients.

Song et al., 2018

Nutrition Research. 2018;51:93-101.

[17] Glycemic index, glycemic load and dementia risk: a prospective analysis within the UK Biobank cohort

Novau-Ferré et al., 2025

International Journal of Epidemiology, 2025, 54(6):dyaf182.

[18] A high-glycemic diet is associated with cerebral amyloid burden in cognitively normal older adults

Taylor et al., 2017

The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2017, 106(6):1463-1470.

[19] A high-glycemic diet is associated with cerebral amyloid accumulation over one year in the preclinical stage of Alzheimer’s disease

Taylor et al., 2021

Frontiers in Nutrition, 2021, 8:741534.

[20] High glycemic load is associated with cognitive decline in apolipoprotein E ε4 allele carriers

Gentreau et al., 2020

Nutrients, 2020, 12(12):3619.

[21] Association between high dietary carbohydrate-to-fiber ratio and dementia risk in older adults: an analysis from the UK Biobank

Lee et al., 2026

BMC Neurology, 2026, 26:33.

[22] Dietary glycemic load and plasma amyloid-β biomarkers of Alzheimer’s disease

Gentreau et al., 2022

Nutrients, 2022, 14(12):2485.

[23] Unravelling the relationship between glucose, insulin and brain health: a UK Biobank study

Mason et al., 2026

Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism, 2026, 28(3):1741-1749.

[24] High glycemic index and glycemic load are associated with moderately increased cancer risk: A meta-analysis of observational studies.

Turati et al., 2015

Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. 2015;59(7):1384-1394.

[25] Dietary glycemic index, glycemic load, and cancer risk: results from the EPIC-Italy study.

Sieri et al., 2017

Scientific Reports. 2017;7:9757.

[26] Dietary glycemic index, glycemic load, and cancer risk: results from the prospective NutriNet-Santé cohort.

Debras et al., 2022

International Journal of Epidemiology. 2022;51(1):250-264.

[27] High glycemic diet and breast cancer occurrence in the Italian EPIC cohort.

Sieri et al., 2013

Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases. 2013;23(7):628-634.

[28] Postdiagnosis Dietary Glycemic Index, Glycemic Load, Dietary Insulin Index, and Insulin Load and Breast Cancer Survival.

Farvid et al., 2021

Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 2021;30(2):335-343.

[29] Associations between Dietary Glycemic Index, Glycemic Load, Carbohydrate, and the Risk of Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia and Cervical Cancer: A Case-Control Study.

Sreeja et al., 2020

Nutrients. 2020;12(12):3742.

[30] Association between dietary carbohydrate intake and multiple sclerosis risk: a large-scale cohort study

Yuan et al., 2025

Frontiers in Nutrition. 2025;12:1654538.

[31] Association between insulin resistance and multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Sepidarkish et al., 2024

Metabolic Brain Disease. 2024;39(5):1015–1026.

[32] Hyperinsulinemia in newly diagnosed patients with multiple sclerosis.

Penesova et al., 2015

Metabolic Brain Disease. 2015;30(4):895–901.

[33] Clinical evaluation of insulin resistance and β-cell function by homeostasis model assessment in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus.

Tso et al., 2004

Clinical Rheumatology. 2004;23(5):416-420.

[34] Insulin resistance is a risk factor for progression to type 1 diabetes.

Fourlanos et al., 2004

Diabetologia. 2004; 47(10):1661–1667.

[35] Role of insulin resistance in predicting progression to type 1 diabetes.

Xu et al., 2007

Diabetes Care. 2007;30(9):2314-2320.

[36] Effect of dietary glycemic index on insulin resistance in adults without diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Yu et al., 2025

Frontiers in Nutrition. 2025;12:1458353.

[37] Long-term effects of low glycemic index/load vs. high glycemic index/load diets on parameters of obesity and obesity-associated risks: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Schwingshackl e Hoffmann, 2013

Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases. 2013;23(8):699-706.

[38] Effect of different protein content and glycemic index of ad libitum diets on diabetes risk factors in overweight adults: the DIOGenes study.

Goyenechea et al., 2011

Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews. 2011;27(7):705-716.

[39] Carbohydrate nutrition, insulin resistance, and the prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in the Framingham Offspring Cohort.

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Diabetes Care. 2004;27(2):538-546.

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[53] Low-carbohydrate diets for diabetic cardiomyopathy: a hypothesis.

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Capítulo 19 · Movimiento y alternancia entre trabajo y recuperación (34)

[1] Effect of physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: an analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy

Lee et al., 2012

Lancet, 2012, 380(9838):219-229.

[2] Sedentary Behavior and Cardiovascular Disease in Older Women: The Objective Physical Activity and Cardiovascular Health (OPACH) Study

Bellettiere et al., 2019

Circulation, 2019, 139(8):1036-1046.

[3] Accelerometer-Measured Sedentary Behavior and Risk of Future Cardiovascular Disease

Ajufo et al., 2025

Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 2025, 85(5):473-486.

[4] A cut-off of daily sedentary time and all-cause mortality in adults: a meta-regression analysis involving more than 1 million participants

Ku et al., 2018

BMC Medicine, 2018, 16(1):74.

[5] A Threshold of Objectively-Assessed Daily Sedentary Time for All-Cause Mortality in Older Adults: A Meta-Regression of Prospective Cohort Studies

Ku et al., 2019

Journal of Clinical Medicine, 2019, 8(4):564.

[6] Patterns of Sedentary Behavior and Mortality in U.S. Middle-Aged and Older Adults: A National Cohort Study

Diaz et al., 2017

Annals of Internal Medicine, 2017, 167(7):465-475.

[7] Sedentary Behavior and Incident Dementia Among Older Adults

Raichlen et al., 2023

JAMA, 2023, 330(10):934-940.

[8] Association of Daily Step Count With All-Cause and Cardiovascular Mortality: A Meta-Analysis

Banach et al., 2023

European Journal of Preventive Cardiology, 2023, 30(18):1975-1985.

[9] Relationship of Daily Step Counts to All-Cause Mortality and Cardiovascular Events

Stens et al., 2023

Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 2023, 82(15):1483-1494.

[10] Association of Physical Activity Intensity With Mortality: A National Cohort Study of 403 681 US Adults

Wang et al., 2021

JAMA Internal Medicine, 2021, 181(2):203-211.

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Ku et al., 2020

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Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 2024, 25(7):105010.

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Martinez-Gomez et al., 2024

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Yang et al., 2025

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[17] Associations Between Sedentary Behavior, Screen Time, Inflammation and Insulin Resistance Biomarkers

Coughlin et al., 2024

Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 2024, 47(5):828-838.

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Bowden Davies et al., 2018

Diabetologia, 2018, 61(6):1282-1294.

[19] Effects of Nonlinear Resistance and Aerobic Interval Training on Cytokines and Insulin Resistance in Sedentary Obese Men

Nikseresht et al., 2014

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2014, 28(9):2560-2568.

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Sports Medicine Open, 2021, 7:69.

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Scientific Reports, 2024, 14:1936.

[22] Effects of Exercise Training on Cardiometabolic Health in Overweight or Obese Adults

Battista et al., 2021

Obesity Reviews, 2021, 22(Suppl 4):e13269.

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[26] Effects of Exercise Training on Insulin Resistance in Children and Adolescents With Overweight or Obesity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

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Richter e Ruderman, 2009

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Mingzheng e You, 2025

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Aging and Disease. 2026;17(4):1904–1915.

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Capítulo 20 · El tabaco y los circuitos que mantienen la adicción (69)

[1] Association of smoking status, intensity, and cessation duration with long-term incidence of nine cardiovascular outcomes and mortality: the Cross-Cohort Collaboration study

Tasdighi et al., 2025

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[2] Low cigarette consumption and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke: meta-analysis of 141 cohort studies in 55 study reports

Hackshaw et al., 2018

BMJ, 2018, 360:j5855.

[3] Associations between tobacco smoking and mortality: a sex-stratified cohort analysis

Vallée, 2025

European Journal of Public Health, 2025, 35(6):1212-1218.

[4] Smoking and oral and pharyngeal cancer: a meta-analysis

Possenti et al., 2026

Oncology Reviews, 2026, 19:1672607.

[5] Tobacco smoking and cause-specific mortality: contemporary estimates from Australia

Joshy et al., 2025

BMC Medicine, 2025, 23(1):115.

[6] Light cigarette smoking increases risk of all-cause and cause-specific mortality: findings from the NHIS cohort study

Qin et al., 2020

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2020, 17(14):5122.

[7] Smoking and cancer, cardiovascular and total mortality among older adults: the Finrisk Study

Barengo et al., 2019

Preventive Medicine Reports, 2019, 14:100875.

[8] Impact of smoking and smoking cessation on cardiovascular events and mortality among older adults: meta-analysis of individual participant data from prospective cohort studies of the CHANCES consortium

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BMJ, 2015, 350:h1551.

[9] Smoking Cessation and Short- and Longer-Term Mortality

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[10] Smoking cessation and reduction in mortality risk among older adults with a long smoking history

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[11] Association of Smoking, Smoking Cessation, and Mortality by Race, Ethnicity, and Sex Among US Adults

Thomson et al., 2022

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[12] Upgrading your best chances: postdiagnosis smoking cessation after cancer diagnosis improves patients’ life expectancy – a systematic review and meta-analysis

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Tobacco Control, 2026, 35(2):240-249.

[13] Reduction in head and neck cancer risk following smoking cessation: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Khalifeh et al., 2024

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[14] Clinical Impact of Vaping

Petrella et al., 2025

Toxics, 2025, 13(6):470.

[15] Association Between E-Cigarettes and Asthma in Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Li et al., 2022

American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 2022, 62(6):953-960.

[16] Assessment of the Impact of Electronic Nicotine Delivery Systems on Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

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Respiratory Medicine, 2025;241:108059.

[17] Are E-Cigarettes Associated with Increased Risk of Myocardial Infarction and Stroke? A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Gupta et al., 2026

BMC Public Health, 2026, 26(1):199.

[18] Electronic Cigarettes and Cardiovascular Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Major Adverse Cardiovascular Events (MACE)

Al-Rubaye et al., 2026

BMC Public Health, 2026, 26(1):704.

[19] Electronic Cigarettes and Cardiovascular Diseases: An Updated Systematic Review and Network Meta-analysis

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Facchini et al., 1992

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[21] Smoking Is Independently Associated With High Plasma Insulin Levels in Nondiabetic Men

Rönnemaa et al., 1996

Diabetes Care, 1996, 19(11):1229-1232.

[22] Insulin Resistance and Compensatory Hyperinsulinemia: The Key Player Between Cigarette Smoking and Cardiovascular Disease?

Reaven e Tsao, 2003

Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 2003, 41(6):1044-1047.

[23] Effects of Cigarette Smoking on Insulin Resistance Risk

Mouhamed et al., 2016

Annales de Cardiologie et d'Angéiologie, 2016, 65(1):21-25.

[24] Short-Term Smoking Increases the Risk of Insulin Resistance

Cho et al., 2022

Scientific Reports, 2022, 12(1):3550.

[25] Association Between E-Cigarette Smoking and Insulin Resistance Using the Triglyceride-Glucose Index in Korean Adults: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

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Korean Journal of Family Medicine, 2025, 46(5):327-332.

[26] Association Between Smoking Behavior and Insulin Resistance Using the Triglyceride-Glucose Index in South Korean Adults

Jeong et al., 2021

Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 2021, 106(11):e4531-e4541.

[27] Long-Term Use of Nicotine Gum Is Associated With Hyperinsulinemia and Insulin Resistance

Eliasson et al., 1996

Circulation, 1996, 94(5):878-881.

[28] Weight Gain and Insulin Resistance During Nicotine Replacement Therapy

Assali et al., 1999

Clinical Cardiology, 1999, 22(5):357-360.

[29] Novel and Reversible Mechanisms of Smoking-Induced Insulin Resistance in Humans

Bergman et al., 2012

Diabetes, 2012, 61(12):3156-3166.

[30] Nicotine and Insulin Resistance: When the Smoke Clears

Bajaj, 2012

Diabetes, 2012, 61(12):3078-3080.

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Zhgenti et al., 2025

Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences, 2025, 28(10):1417-1427.

[32] Nicotine Alleviates Chronic Stress-Induced Anxiety and Depressive-Like Behavior and Hippocampal Neuropathology Through Regulating Autophagy Signaling

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Neurochemistry International, 2018, 114:58-70.

[33] Rapid Akt Activation by Nicotine and a Tobacco Carcinogen Modulates the Phenotype of Normal Human Airway Epithelial Cells

West et al., 2003

Journal of Clinical Investigation, 2003, 111(1):81-90.

[34] The Role of α7-nAChR-Mediated PI3K/AKT Pathway in Nicotine-Induced Lung Cancer

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Science of the Total Environment, 2024, 912:169604.

[35] α9- and α7-Containing Nicotinic Receptors Mediate the Proliferative Effects of Nicotine in the A549 Adenocarcinoma Cell Line

Mucchietto et al., 2018

British Journal of Pharmacology, 2018, 175(11):1957-1972.

[36] Nicotine Stimulates PPARβ/δ Expression in Human Lung Carcinoma Cells Through Activation of PI3K/mTOR and Suppression of AP-2α

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Cancer Research, 2009, 69(16):6445-6453.

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Oncology Reports, 2020, 43(1):159-168.

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Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 2020, 521(4):977-983.

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Carcinogenesis, 2005, 26(7):1182-1195.

[40] The Role of the Akt/mTOR Pathway in Tobacco Carcinogen-Induced Lung Tumorigenesis

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Clinical Cancer Research, 2010, 16(1):4-10.

[41] Tobacco Carcinogen-Induced Cellular Transformation Increases Activation of the Phosphatidylinositol 3′-Kinase/Akt Pathway in Vitro and in Vivo

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Cancer Research, 2004, 64(2):446-451.

[42] Survivin Expression in Normal Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells: A Critical Early Event in Tobacco Carcinogen-Induced Human Carcinogenesis

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Carcinogenesis, 2008, 29(8):1614-1622.

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Cancer Prevention Research, 2016, 9(11):875-886.

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PLoS One, 2016, 11(2):e0149120.

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Archives of Oral Biology, 2020, 111:104653.

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Molecular Cancer Therapeutics, 2015, 14(9):2112-2120.

[47] Role of Dopamine in the Behavioural Actions of Nicotine Related to Addiction

Di Chiara, 2000

European Journal of Pharmacology, 2000, 393(1-3):295-314.

[48] Nicotine-Induced Dopamine Release in the Rat Nucleus Accumbens Is Regulated by Nicotinic Receptors in the Ventral Tegmental Area

Nisell et al., 1994

Synapse, 1994, 16(1):36-44.

[49] Dopamine and Drug Addiction: The Nucleus Accumbens Shell Connection

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Neuropharmacology, 2004, 47(Suppl 1):227-241.

[50] Nicotine: From Molecular Mechanisms to Behaviour

Wonnacott et al., 2005

Current Opinion in Pharmacology, 2005, 5(1):53-59.

[51] Nicotine and Neuronal Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors: Unraveling the Mechanisms of Nicotine Addiction

Jiang et al., 2025

Frontiers in Neuroscience, 2025, 19:1670883.

[52] Alpha6-Containing Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors Dominate the Nicotine Control of Dopamine Neurotransmission in the Nucleus Accumbens

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Neuropsychopharmacology, 2008, 33(9):2158-2166.

[53] In Vivo Activation of Midbrain Dopamine Neurons via Sensitized, High-Affinity Alpha6 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors

Drenan et al., 2008

Neuron, 2008, 60(1):123-136.

[54] Pharmacological Effects of Nicotine Salts on Dopamine Release in the Nucleus Accumbens

Li et al., 2023

Frontiers in Pharmacology, 2023, 14:1279512.

[55] Combined Systemic Effects of Alcohol and Nicotine on Dopamine Release in the Nucleus Accumbens

Tizabi et al., 2007

Alcohol and Alcoholism, 2007, 42(5):413-416.

[56] Activation of D1R/PKA/mTOR Signaling Cascade in Medial Prefrontal Cortex Underlies the Antidepressant Effects of l-SPD

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Scientific Reports, 2017, 7(1):3809.

[57] Dopaminergic Modulation of Auditory Cortex-Dependent Memory Consolidation Through mTOR

Schicknick et al., 2008

Cerebral Cortex, 2008, 18(11):2646-2658.

[58] The First Alcohol Drink Triggers mTORC1-Dependent Synaptic Plasticity in D1 Receptor Neurons of the Nucleus Accumbens

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Journal of Neuroscience, 2016, 36(3):701-713.

[59] Essential Role of D1R in the Regulation of mTOR Complex 1 Signaling Induced by Cocaine

Sutton e Caron, 2015

Neuropharmacology, 2015, 99:610-619.

[60] Inhibition of mTOR Signaling in Parkinson’s Disease Prevents L-DOPA-Induced Dyskinesia

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[61] Repeated Stimulation of Dopamine D1-like Receptor and Hyperactivation of mTOR Signaling Lead to Generalized Seizures, Alteration of Dentate Gyrus Plasticity, and Memory Deficits

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Hippocampus, 2014, 24(12):1466-1481.

[62] Dopamine Pathway Mediated by DRD5 Facilitates Tumor Growth Through Enhancing Warburg Effect in Esophageal Cancer

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[66] mTOR Signaling in the Nucleus Accumbens Mediates Behavioral Sensitization to Methamphetamine

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[68] Region-Specific Activation of AKT and mTORC1 Signaling in Response to Excessive Alcohol Drinking in Rodents

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Biological Psychiatry, 2011, 70(6):575-582.

Capítulo 21 · Relaciones sociales y respuestas biológicas a la soledad (82)

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Holt-Lunstad et al., 2010

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[2] Social Isolation: A Predictor of Mortality Comparable to Traditional Clinical Risk Factors

Pantell et al., 2013

Am J Public Health. 2013;103(11):2056–2062.

[3] Situational Versus Chronic Loneliness as Risk Factors for All-Cause Mortality

Shiovitz-Ezra e Ayalon, 2010

Int Psychogeriatr. 2010;22(3):455–462.

[4] Social Isolation: An Integrated Molecular Network Disrupting Cellular Homeostasis

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[5] Loneliness: An Immunometabolic Syndrome

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Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(22):12162.

[6] Social Disconnection as a Global Behavioral Epidemic: A Call to Action

Na et al., 2023

JAMA Psychiatry. 2023;80(2):101–102.

[7] Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Cardiovascular Disease

Holt-Lunstad e Smith, 2016

Heart. 2016;102(13):987–989.

[8] The social brain hypothesis: thirty years on

Dunbar, 2024

Ann Hum Biol. 2024;51(1):2359920.

[9] The evolution of the social brain: anthropoid primates contrasted with other vertebrates

Shultz e Dunbar, 2007

Proc Biol Sci. 2007;274(1624):2429– 2436.

[10] The human socio-cognitive niche and its evolutionary origins

Whiten e Erdal, 2012

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[11] Social brain volume is associated with in-degree social network size among older adults

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[12] Social Learning among Congo Basin Hunter– Gatherers

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[13] Co-residence patterns in hunter–gatherer societies show unique human social structure

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Journal of Human Evolution. 2019;131:96–108.

[17] Human social organization in the late Pleistocene: beyond the nomadic-egalitarian model

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Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020;117(12):6453–6462.

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[20] Social isolation in childhood and inflammation in adulthood: evidence from a national birth cohort

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BMC Public Health. 2025;25(1):2751.

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[23] Loneliness, discrimination, stress and risk of type 2 diabetes in young adults

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Am J Prev Med. 2025;68(2):217–226.

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Hämmig, 2019

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Capítulo 22 · Estrés crónico y regulación del metabolismo (38)

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[2] Cortisol awakening response and psychosocial factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Chida e Steptoe, 2009

Biological Psychology, 2009, 80(3):265-278.

[3] Acute and chronic stress increase salivary cortisol: a study in the real-life setting of a national examination undertaken by medical graduates

González-Cabrera et al., 2014

Stress, 2014, 17(2):149-156.

[4] Cortisol responses to mental stress and incident hypertension in healthy men and women

Hamer e Steptoe, 2012

The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 2012, 97(1):E29-E34.

[5] Prolonged perceived stress predicts fingernail cortisol increase: A longitudinal study

Moriishi et al., 2024

Journal of Psychiatric Research, 2024, 179:8-14.

[6] Perceived Stress, Salivary Cortisol, and Temperament Traits among Students of Dental Medicine: A Prospective and Interventional Study

Špiljak et al., 2024

Behavioral Sciences, 2024, 14(4):289.

[7] Effectiveness of stress management interventions to change cortisol levels: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Rogerson et al., 2024

Psychoneuroendocrinology, 2024, 159:106415.

[8] Rapid optical determination of salivary cortisol responses in individuals subjected to physiological and psychological stress

Ahmed et al., 2024

Scientific Reports, 2024, 14:31578.

[9] Possible role of stress-induced hormonal dysbalance in the pathophysiology of insulin resistance in lean individuals

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[10] Metabolic adaptations to dexamethasone-induced insulin resistance in healthy volunteers

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Obesity Research, 2003, 11(5):625-631.

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Ould Bessi et al., 2025

Obesity Medicine, 2025, 58:100648.

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Adam et al., 2010

The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 2010, 95(10):4729-4735.

[13] Chronic stress induces insulin resistance and enhances cognitive impairment in AD

Rong et al., 2024

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Juvinao-Quintero et al., 2023

Annals of Epidemiology, 2023, 81:14-23.e8.

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[18] Elevated corticosterone associated with food deprivation increases REDD1 expression in rat skeletal muscle

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Capítulo 23 · De la señal nerviosa a la respuesta hormonal (21)

[1] Genetic Inactivation of mTORC1 or mTORC2 in Neurons Reveals Distinct Functions in Glutamatergic Synaptic Transmission

McCabe et al., 2020

eLife. 2020;9:e51440.

[2] Astrocyte Glutamate Uptake and Signaling as Novel Targets for Antiepileptogenic Therapy

Peterson e Binder, 2020

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[3] Physiological and Pathological Role of mTOR Signaling in Astrocytes

Hochmuth e Hirrlinger, 2025

Neurochemical Research. 2025;50:53.

[4] mTOR Promotes Astrocyte Activation and Participates in Neuropathic Pain Through an Upregulation of RIP3

Dong et al., 2025

Neurochemical Research. 2025;50(2):93.

[5] SLC38A10 Regulate Glutamate Homeostasis and Modulate the AKT/TSC2/mTOR Pathway in Mouse Primary Cortex Cells

Tripathi et al., 2022

Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology. 2022;10:854397.

[6] Hypocretin/Orexin Excites Hypocretin Neurons via a Local Glutamate Neuron: A Potential Mechanism for Orchestrating the Hypothalamic Arousal System

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[11] Activation of Glutamate Transporters in the Locus Coeruleus Paradoxically Activates Descending Inhibition in Rats

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[13] Glutamatergic Periaqueductal Gray Projections to the Locus Coeruleus Orchestrate Adaptive Arousal States in Threatening Contexts

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Brain Research. 1992;589(1):91-96.

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[16] Regulation of corticotropin-releasing hormone neuronal network activity by noradrenergic stress signals

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[17] Role of paraventricular nucleus-projecting norepinephrine/epinephrine neurons in acute and chronic stress

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European Journal of Neuroscience. 2014;39(11):1903-1911.

[18] Continuous Administration of Human Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone in the Absence of Glucocorticoid Feedback in Man

Ur et al., 1995

Neuroendocrinology. 1995;61(2):191-197.

[19] ACTH and Cortisol Responses to CRH in Acute, Subacute and Prolonged Critical Illness: A Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Crossover Cohort Study

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[20] Chronic Stress and Autoimmunity: The Role of HPA Axis and Cortisol Dysregulation

Núñez et al., 2025

International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2025;26(20):9994.

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Frontiers in Endocrinology. 2026;17:1741709.

Capítulo 24 · Micronutrientes y adecuación nutricional (23)

[1] Association of composite dietary antioxidant index with mortality in adults with hypertension: evidence from NHANES

Qin et al., 2024

Frontiers in Nutrition. 2024;11:1371928.

[2] Association of independent dietary antioxidant intake, and CDAI level with risks of all-cause and cardiovascular-cause death among population with cardiovascular disease

Hu et al., 2025

BMC Public Health. 2025;25:1327.

[3] Association between the composite dietary antioxidant index and all-cause mortality in individuals with osteoarthritis via NHANES data

Jiang et al., 2024

Scientific Reports. 2024;14(1):30387.

[4] Joint and Independent Associations Between Dietary Antioxidant Intake and All-Cause and Cardiovascular Mortality Among Hypertensive Patients: A Population-Based Cohort Study

Zhao et al., 2025

Nutrition Journal. 2025;24(1):14.

[5] Dietary Trace Element Intake and All-Cause and Cardiovascular Mortality Risk in Adults With Cardiovascular-Kidney-Metabolic Syndrome Stages 0–3: A Cohort Study

Yi et al., 2026

BMC Public Health. 2026;26:1779.

[6] Nutrient deficiency patterns and all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in older adults with hypertension: a latent class analysis

Sun et al., 2024

BMC Public Health. 2024;24(1):1551.

[7] Vitamin and Mineral Supplementation During Pregnancy on Maternal, Birth, Child Health and Development Outcomes in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Oh et al., 2020

Nutrients. 2020;12(2):491.

[8] Effects of Vitamin and Mineral Supplementation During Pregnancy on Maternal, Birth, Child Health and Development Outcomes in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review

Keats et al., 2021

Campbell Systematic Reviews. 2021;17(2):e1127.

[9] Multiple Micronutrient Fortification of Foods and Condiments and Health Outcomes in the General Population

Das et al., 2019

Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2019;12:CD011400.

[10] Neglected Micronutrients: Considering a Broader Set of Vitamins and Minerals in Global Public Health Nutrition Programs

Brown et al., 2025

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2025;122(3):680-694.

[11] Dietary Supplement Use After Cancer Diagnosis in Relation to Total Mortality, Cancer Mortality and Recurrence: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Kanellopoulou et al., 2021

Nutrition and Cancer. 2021;73(1):16-30.

[12] The Role of Vitamins and Micronutrients in Melanoma Prevention: A Review of Current Evidence

Pec et al., 2026

International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2026;27(3):1428.

[13] Oral Dietary and Complementary Supplements for the Management of Chronic Diseases in Children: A Systematic Review

Inchingolo et al., 2026

Frontiers in Pediatrics. 2026;13:1710200.

[14] Association Between Circulating Micronutrient Profile, Glycemic Control and Insulin Resistance in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Santos et al., 2024

Biometals. 2024;37:527-537.

[15] Micronutrient Intake in Relation to Caloric Intake and Risk of Insulin Resistance

Piyathilake et al., 2022

Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases. 2022;32(6):1385-1391.

[16] Burden of Micronutrient Deficiency in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Mangal et al., 2025

BMJ Nutrition, Prevention & Health. 2025.

[17] Human Nutrition Research in the Age of Data: Results From 11 Studies of a Multimicronutrient Intervention

Kaput e Monteiro, 2024

Nutrients. 2024;16(2):188.

[18] A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Evaluating the Effect of Hidden Hunger on Glycemic Control in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Mangal et al., 2026

Scientific Reports. 2026;16:1936.

[19] The Effect and Potential Mechanism of Maternal Micronutrient Intake on Offspring Glucose Metabolism: An Emerging Field

Wu et al., 2021

Frontiers in Nutrition. 2021;8:763809.

[20] Maternal dietary vitamin restriction increases body fat content but not insulin resistance in WNIN rat offspring up to 6 months of age

Venu et al., 2004

Diabetologia. 2004;47(9):1493-1501.

[21] Multiple Micronutrient Deficiencies Alter Host Energy Metabolism and Gut Microbiome in an Early-Life Murine Model

Littlejohn et al., 2023

Frontiers in Nutrition. 2023;10:1151670.

[22] Hidden Hunger: A Narrative Review

Weffort e Lamounier, 2024

Jornal de Pediatria (Rio J). 2024;100(Suppl 1):S10-S17.

[23] Micronutrient Deficiency in Children and Adolescents with Obesity: A Narrative Review

Calcaterra et al., 2023

Children. 2023;10(4):695.

Capítulo 25 · Vitamina D y regulación de las funciones celulares (37)

[1] Vitamin D and Chronic Disorders: A Review of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases

Młynarska et al., 2025

Pharmaceuticals (Basel), 2025;18(10):1467.

[2] Vitamin D and Autoimmune Rheumatic Diseases

Athanassiou et al., 2023

Biomolecules, 2023;13(4):709.

[3] Immunomodulatory Properties of Vitamin D in the Intestinal and Respiratory Systems

Hamza et al., 2023

Nutrients, 2023;15(7):1696.

[4] Vitamin D Influences the Activity of Mast Cells in Allergic Manifestations and Potentiates Their Effector Functions against Pathogens

Mehrani et al., 2023

Cells, 2023;12(18):2271.

[5] Vitamin D as a Modulator of Molecular Pathways Involved in Cardiovascular Diseases: Evidence from Preclinical Studies

Anilkumar et al., 2024

Life Sciences, 2024;357:123062.

[6] Insulin-sensitizing effects of vitamin D repletion mediated by adipocyte vitamin D receptor: Studies in humans and mice

Lontchi-Yimagou et al., 2020

Molecular Metabolism, 2020;42:101095.

[7] Effect of Calcium–Vitamin D Co-Supplementation on Insulin, Insulin Sensitivity, and Glycemia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials

Asbaghi et al., 2019

Hormone and Metabolic Research, 2019;51(5):288-295.

[8] Effectiveness of Vitamin D Supplementation on Biochemical, Clinical and Inflammatory Parameters in Patients with Different Types of Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Bruna-Mejías et al., 2025

Nutrients, 2025;17(18):2991.

[9] Association Between Vitamin D Supplementation and Cancer Incidence and Mortality: A Trial Sequential Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Guo et al., 2023

Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 2023;63(26):8428-8442.

[10] Vitamin D supplementation and total cancer incidence and mortality by daily vs. infrequent large-bolus dosing strategies: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials

Keum et al., 2022

British Journal of Cancer, 2022;127(5):872-878.

[11] Effects of Vitamin D on Tumor Cell Proliferation and Migration, Tumor Initiation and Anti-Tumor Immune Response in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinomas

Brust et al., 2024

Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 2024;180:117497.

[12] Vitamin D and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Molecular Mechanisms and Clinical Implications – A Narrative Review

Fuentes-Barría et al., 2025

International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2025;26(5):2153.

[13] Autophagy and mTOR Pathways Mediate the Potential Renoprotective Effects of Vitamin D on Diabetic Nephropathy

Khodir et al., 2020

International Journal of Nephrology, 2020;2020:7941861.

[14] Impact of Vitamin D3 Supplementation on Motor Functionality and the Immune Response in Parkinson's Disease Patients with Vitamin D Deficiency

Li et al., 2025

Scientific Reports, 2025;15(1):25154.

[15] The Synaptic and Circuit Functions of Vitamin D in Neurodevelopment Disorders

Ye et al., 2023

Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 2023;19:1515-1530.

[16] Serum and Supplemental Vitamin D Levels and Insulin Resistance in Type 2 Diabetes Populations: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Lei et al., 2023

Scientific Reports. 2023;13:12343.

[17] Preventive and Improving Effects of Vitamin D on Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Evidence from an Umbrella Review of Cohort Studies and Randomized Controlled Trials

Cheng et al., 2024

Frontiers in Nutrition. 2024;11:1462535.

[18] The Effect of Vitamin D Supplementation on Insulin Resistance and Progression from Prediabetes to Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Hassan et al., 2024

QJM: An Int Journal of Medicine. 2024;117(Suppl 2):hcae175.249.

[19] Effects of Oral Vitamin D Supplementation on Vitamin D Levels and Glycemic Parameters in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Network Meta-Analysis

Zhang et al., 2025

Biomedical and Environmental Sciences. 2025;38(6):716-726.

[20] Optimal Dosage of Vitamin D Supplements to Improve Insulin Resistance in Overweight/Obese Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis

Zhu et al., 2024

European Journal of Nutrition. 2024;63:763-775.

[21] Vitamin D Plays a Protective Role in Osteoarthritis by Regulating AMPK/mTOR Signalling Pathway to Activate Chondrocyte Autophagy

Liu et al., 2024

Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology, 2024;42(3):736-745.

[22] Vitamin D3 affects Browning of White Adipocytes by Regulating Autophagy via PI3K/Akt/mTOR/p53 Signaling In Vitro and In Vivo

Zhao e Qin, 2022

Apoptosis, 2022;27(11-12):992-1003.

[23] Potential of Vitamin D and L-Cysteine Co-Supplementation for Downregulation of Mammalian Target of Rapamycin (mTOR): A Novel Therapeutic Approach to Diabetes

Stevens et al., 2025

Metabolic Syndrome and Related Disorders, 2025;23(1):13-22.

[24] Vitamin D Affects the Warburg Effect and Stemness Maintenance in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Cells by Regulating the PI3K/AKT/mTOR Signaling Pathway

Yiyan et al., 2022

Current Cancer Drug Targets, 2022;22(1):86-95.

[25] Vitamin D Promotes Apoptosis and Enhances Cisplatin Sensitivity in Bladder Cancer Cells by Inhibiting the Warburg Effect Through AKT/mTOR Pathway

Zhou et al., 2026

BMC Urology, 2026;26(1):11.

[26] Vitamin D: A New Player in the World of mTOR Signaling

Lisse e Hewison, 2011

Cell Cycle. 2011;10(12):1888-1889.

[27] Gene Targeting by the Vitamin D Response Element Binding Protein Reveals a Role for Vitamin D in Osteoblast mTOR Signaling

Lisse et al., 2011

FASEB Journal. 2011;25(3):937-947.

[28] In Vitro and In Vivo Inhibition of mTOR by 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 to Improve Early Diabetic Nephropathy via the DDIT4/TSC2/mTOR Pathway

Wang et al., 2016

Endocrine. 2016;54(2):348-359.

[29] 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 inhibits the proliferation of rat mesangial cells induced by high glucose via DDIT4

Chen et al., 2018

Oncotarget. 2018;9(1):418-427.

[30] 1,25(OH)2D3 Protects β Cell Against High Glucose-Induced Apoptosis Through mTOR Suppressing

Yang et al., 2015

Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology. 2015;414:111-119.

[31] Exploring vitamin D signalling within skin cancer

Vishlaghi e Lisse, 2020

Clinical Endocrinology. 2020;92(4):273-281.

[32] DNA Damage-Inducible Transcript 4 Is an Innate Guardian for Human Squamous Cell Carcinoma and a Molecular Vector for the Antitumor Effect of 1,25(OH)2D3

Zhang et al., 2019

Experimental Dermatology. 2019;28(1):45-52.

[33] DNA Damage-Inducible Transcript 4 Is an Innate Surveillance System of Hair Follicular Stress in Vitamin D Receptor Knockout Mice and a Regulator of Wound Re-Epithelialization

Zhao et al., 2016

International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2016;17(12):1984.

[34] Vitamin D Modulation of Mitochondrial Oxidative Metabolism and mTOR Enforces Stress Adaptations and Anticancer Responses

Quigley et al., 2022

JBMR Plus. 2022;6(1):e10572.

[35] Vitamin D Mitigates Hepatic Fat Accumulation and Inflammation and Increases SIRT1/AMPK Expression in AML-12 Hepatocytes

Chang, 2024

Molecules. 2024;29(6):1401.

[36] Activated Vitamin D3 Improves Gut Microbiota and Intestinal Barrier in Type 2 Diabetic Mice Through Modulation of AMPK Activation

Zhang et al., 2025

Scientific Reports. 2025;15:43579.

[37] Vitamin D3 Promotes Gastric Cancer Cell Autophagy by Mediating p53/AMPK/mTOR Signaling

Wang et al., 2024

Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2024;14:1338260.

Capítulo 26 · Vitamina C entre la integridad de los tejidos y la respuesta celular (29)

[1] Vitamin C: A Comprehensive Review of Its Role in Health, Disease Prevention, and Therapeutic Potential

Alberts et al., 2025

Molecules. 2025;30(3):748.

[2] Therapeutic Perspective of Vitamin C and Its Derivatives

Meščić Macan et al., 2019

Antioxidants (Basel). 2019;8(8):247.

[3] Old Things New View: Ascorbic Acid Protects the Brain in Neurodegenerative Disorders

Covarrubias-Pinto et al., 2015

International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2015;16(12):28194-28217.

[4] Vitamin C in Cardiovascular Diseases: From Molecular Mechanisms to Clinical Evidence and Therapeutic Applications

Xu et al., 2025

Antioxidants (Basel). 2025;14(5):506.

[5] Anti-Inflammatory, Antithrombotic and Antioxidant Efficacy and Synergy of a High-Dose Vitamin C Supplement Enriched with a Low Dose of Bioflavonoids: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation through a Clinical Study in Healthy Subjects

Chrysikopoulou et al., 2025

Nutrients. 2025;17(16):2643.

[6] Vitamin C Intake and Cancers: An Umbrella Review

Chen et al., 2022

Frontiers in Nutrition. 2022;8:812394.

[7] Repurposing Vitamin C for Cancer Therapy: Attention to the Tumor Microenvironment

Li et al., 2022

Cancers (Basel). 2022;14(11):2608.

[8] Vitamin C and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in Women

Osganian et al., 2003

Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2003;42(2):246-252.

[9] Vitamin C Status and Risk of Stroke and Coronary Heart Disease in Elderly People

Gale et al., 1995

BMJ. 1995;310(6994):1563-1566.

[10] Vitamin C Supplementation, APOE4 Genotype, and Cognitive Function in a Rural-Dwelling Cohort

Chaudhari et al., 2016

Journal of Nutrition Health and Aging. 2016;20(8):841-844.

[11] Vitamin C and Immune Function

Carr e Maggini, 2017

Nutrients. 2017;9(11):1211.

[12] In Vivo Effect of Ascorbic Acid on Enhancement of Human Natural Killer Cell Activity

Vojdani e Ghoneum, 1993

Nutrition Research. 1993;13(7):753-764.

[13] Influence of Vitamin C on Lymphocytes: An Overview

van Gorkom et al., 2018

Antioxidants (Basel). 2018;7(3):41.

[14] Immune-Enhancing Role of Vitamin C and Zinc and Effect on Clinical Conditions

Wintergerst et al., 2006

Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism. 2006;50(2):85-94.

[15] Vitamin C Against the Common Cold and Pneumonia

Hemilä e Chalker, 2025

Polish Archives of Internal Medicine. 2025;135(1):16926.

[16] The Roles of Vitamin C in Skin Health

Pullar et al., 2017

Nutrients. 2017;9(8):866.

[17] Effects of L-Ascorbic Acid (C6H8O6: Vit-C) on Collagen Amino Acids: DFT Study

Chugaeva et al., 2023

Amino Acids. 2023;55(11):1655-1664.

[18] Efficacy of Vitamin C Supplementation on Collagen Synthesis and Oxidative Stress After Musculoskeletal Injuries: A Systematic Review

DePhillipo et al., 2018

Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine. 2018;6(10):2325967118804544.

[19] The Effects of Ascorbic Acid on Cartilage Metabolism in Guinea Pig Articular Cartilage Explants

Clark et al., 2002

Matrix Biology. 2002;21(2):175-184.

[20] Effect of Ascorbate on the Activity of Hypoxia-Inducible Factor in Cancer Cells

Knowles et al., 2003

Cancer Research. 2003;63(8):1764-1768. PMID: 12702559.

[21] Restoring physiological levels of ascorbate slows tumor growth and moderates HIF-1 pathway activity in Gulo(-/-) mice

Campbell et al., 2015

Cancer Medicine. 2015;4(2):303-314.

[22] Modulation of Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-1 Alpha in Cultured Primary Cells by Intracellular Ascorbate

Vissers et al., 2007

Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 2007;42(6):765-772.

[23] Increased Tumor Ascorbate Is Associated with Extended Disease-Free Survival and Decreased Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-1 Activation in Human Colorectal Cancer

Kuiper et al., 2014

Frontiers in Oncology. 2014;4:10.

[24] High-Dose Ascorbate Administration Increases Tumor Ascorbate Levels and Decreases Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-1 Activity and Tumor Growth in Mice

Campbell et al., 2016

Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 2016;100(Suppl):S132.

[25] The Ever-Expanding Role of HIF in Tumour and Stromal Biology

LaGory e Giaccia, 2016

Nature Cell Biology. 2016;18(4):356-365.

[26] The HIF axes in cancer: angiogenesis, metabolism, and immune-modulation

Acuña-Pilarte e Koh, 2025

Trends in Biochemical Sciences. 2025;50(8):677-694.

[27] Hypoxia-Inducible Factors: A Central Link Between Inflammation and Cancer

Triner e Shah, 2016

Journal of Clinical Investigation. 2016;126(10):3689-3698.

[28] Interaction of HIF-1a with various cell death pathways in tumor immune microenvironment (TIME)

Varkiani et al., 2026

Apoptosis. 2026;31:96.

[29] UHRF1-Mediated HIF-1α Stabilization Promotes Ovarian Cancer Through Metabolic Reprogramming and Angiogenesis

Jiang et al., 2025

Cell Death & Disease. 2025;16:751.

Capítulo 27 · Omega 3 y composición de las membranas celulares (39)

[1] New Insights into the Health Potential of ω-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids

Lakshimi e Kavitha, 2023

Current Nutrition Reports, 2023;12(4):813-829.

[2] Modulation of Inflammation and Immunity by Omega-3 Fatty Acids: A Possible Role in the Prevention and Arresting of Autoimmune, Viral and Age-Related Diseases

Poggioli et al., 2023

European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences, 2023;27(15):7380-7400.

[3] Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Neuroinflammation in Depression: Targeting Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns and Neural Biomarkers

Malau et al., 2024

Cells, 2024;13(21):1791.

[4] Long Chain Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids: Are They Beneficial for Physical and Cognitive Function in the Elderly?

Erhardt et al., 2021

Journal of Nutrition Health and Aging, 2021;25(4):454-461.

[5] Dietary Fish Intake and Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Cancer Survival: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Wang et al., 2023

Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 2023;63(23):6235-6251.

[6] Effects of Fish-Oil Supplementation on Myocardial Fatty Acids in Humans

Metcalf et al., 2007

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2007;85(5):1222-1228.

[7] The Pattern of Fatty Acids Displaced by EPA and DHA Following 12 Months Supplementation Varies Between Blood Cell and Plasma Fractions

Walker et al., 2015

Nutrients, 2015;7(8):6281-6293.

[8] Moderate Fish-Oil Supplementation Reverses Low Platelet Long-Chain n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Status and Reduces Plasma Triacylglycerol Concentrations in British Indo-Asians

Lovegrove et al., 2004

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2004;79(6):974-982.

[9] Effect of Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Fish Oil Supplementation on Multiple Sclerosis: A Systematic Review

AlAmmar et al., 2021

Nutritional Neuroscience, 2021;24(7):569-579.

[10] The Effects of Omega-3, DHA, EPA, Souvenaid® in Alzheimer's Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Calderon Martinez et al., 2024

Neuropsychopharmacology Reports, 2024; 44(3):545-556.

[11] Omega-3 Fatty Acids as Druggable Therapeutics for Neurodegenerative Disorders

Chitre et al., 2019

CNS & Neurological Disorders - Drug Targets, 2019;18(10):735-749.

[12] Potential Treatment of Parkinson's Disease with Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids

Li e Song, 2022

Nutritional Neuroscience, 2022;25(1):180-191.

[13] Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids: Vascular and Cardiac Effects on the Cellular and Molecular Level (Narrative Review)

Drenjančević e Pitha, 2022

International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2022;23(4):2104.

[14] Understanding the Role of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Cancer Development and Prevention

Akbar et al., 2024

Cancer Treatment and Research, 2024;191:57-93.

[15] Exploring the Potential of Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Patients with Acne: A Prospective Intervention Study

Guertler et al., 2024

Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, 2024;23(10):3295-3304.

[16] Beneficial Effects of Long-Chain n-3 Fatty Acids on Insulin Resistance: Basic and Clinical Aspects

Delarue, 2025

Biochimie, 2025;239(Pt A):30-40.

[17] Effects of Omega-3 Supplementation on Glucose and Lipid Metabolism in Patients with Gestational Diabetes: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Liu et al., 2023

Journal of Diabetes and its Complications, 2023;37(4):108451.

[18] Efficacy of Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation on Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Patients with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Xia et al., 2021

Annals of Palliative Medicine, 2021;10(6):6425-6437.

[19] Omega-3 supplementation in the treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) - a review of clinical trials and cohort

Melo et al., 2022

Endocrine Regulations, 2022;56(1):66-79.

[20] Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Reduce Insulin Resistance and Triglycerides in Obese Children and Adolescents

Juárez-López et al., 2013

Pediatric Diabetes, 2013;14(5):377-383.

[21] Omega-3 Supplementation and Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Delpino et al., 2022

Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 2022;62(16):4435-4448.

[22] Activation of the Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase-AKT/Protein Kinase B Signalling Pathway by Arachidonic Acid in Human Myeloid and Endothelial Cells: Involvement of the ErbB Receptor Family

Hii et al., 2001

Journal of Biological Chemistry, 2001;276(29):27246-27255.

[23] Arachidonic Acid Activation of Translation Initiation Signalling in Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells

Neeli et al., 2003

Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 2003;309(4):755-761.

[24] Arachidonic Acid Activates Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase Signaling and Induces Gene Expression in Prostate Cancer

Hughes-Fulford et al., 2006

Cancer Research, 2006;66(3):1427-1433.

[25] Arachidonic Acid Promotes Migration and Invasion Through a PI3K/AKT-Dependent Pathway in MDA-MB-231 Breast Cancer Cells

Villegas-Comonfort et al., 2014

Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids, 2014;90(5):169-177.

[26] Critical Role of Arachidonic Acid-Activated mTOR Signaling in Breast Carcinogenesis and Angiogenesis

Wen et al., 2013

Oncogene, 2013;32(2):160-170.

[27] Effects of Dietary Fish Oil Supplementation on the Fatty Acid Composition of Human Platelet Membrane Phospholipids: Demonstration of Selective Incorporation of Eicosapentaenoic Acid into Membrane Phospholipid Pools

Galloway et al., 1985

Clinical Science, 1985;68(4):449-454.

[28] Incorporation of n-3 Fatty Acids into Plasma Lipid Fractions, and Erythrocyte membranes and platelets During Dietary Supplementation with Fish, Fish Oil and Docosahexaenoic Acid-Rich Oil Among Healthy Young Men

Vidgren et al., 1997

Lipids, 1997;32:697-705.

[29] Changes of Erythrocyte Fatty Acids after Supplementation with Highly Concentrated Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) in Pediatric Cystic Fibrosis: A Randomized Double-Blind Controlled Trial

Ayats-Vidal et al., 2023

Journal of Clinical Medicine, 2023;12(11):3704.

[30] Intravenous n-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation and n-3 Fatty Acid Status and Outcome in Critically Ill Elderly Patients Receiving Enteral Nutrition

Barros et al., 2013

Clinical Nutrition, 2013;32(4):599-605.

[31] Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Improve Cognitive Function in Heat-Stressed Mice by Enhancing Autophagy Through Inhibition of PI3K-AKT-mTOR Pathway Phosphorylation

Ren et al., 2025

Food & Function, 2025;16(5):1931-1946.

[32] Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Attenuate MNU-Induced Colorectal Cancer in Rats by Blocking PI3K/AKT/Bcl-2 Signaling

Huang et al., 2020

OncoTargets and Therapy, 2020;13:1953-1965.

[33] Endogenous Production of n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Protects Mice from Carbon Tetrachloride-Induced Liver Fibrosis by Regulating mTOR and Bcl-2/Bax Signaling Pathways

Shan et al., 2021

Experimental Physiology, 2021;106(4):983-993.

[34] Docosahexaenoic Acid Induces Cell Death in Human Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Cells by Repressing mTOR via AMPK Activation and PI3K/AKT Inhibition

Kim et al., 2015

BioMed Research International, 2015;2015:239764.

[35] Elevation of n-3/n-6 PUFAs ratio Suppresses mTORC1 and Prevents Colorectal Carcinogenesis Associated with APC Mutation

Liu et al., 2016

Oncotarget, 2016;7(47):76944-76954.

[36] Protective Effect of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids on Sepsis via the AMPK/mTOR Pathway

Liu et al., 2023

Pharmaceutical Biology, 2023;61(1):306-315.

[37] Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Protect Peritoneal Mesothelial Cells from Hyperglycolysis and Mesothelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition Through the FFAR4/CaMKKβ/AMPK/mTOR Signaling Pathway

Zhang et al., 2024

International Immunopharmacology, 2024;128:111561.

[38] Docosahexaenoic acid promotes the formation of autophagosomes in MCF-7 breast cancer cells through oxidative stress-induced growth inhibitor 1 mediated activation of AMPK/mTOR pathway

Tsai et al., 2021

Food and Chemical Toxicology, 2021;154:112318.

[39] Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Activate AMP Kinase and Protect the Retina from Ischemic Injury: An In Vitro and In Vivo Study

Dátilo et al., 2023

Experimental Eye Research, 2023;226:109345.

Capítulo 28 · Melatonina y coordinación de los ritmos biológicos (51)

[1] Comprehensive review of melatonin as a promising nutritional and nutraceutical supplement

Kamfar et al., 2024

Heliyon. 2024;10(2):e24266.

[2] Melatonin: beyond circadian regulation— exploring its diverse physiological roles and therapeutic potential

Jia et al., 2025

Sleep Medicine Reviews. 2025;82:102123.

[3] Melatonin, Brain Aging and Neuroprotection: New Evidence on the Role of a Potent Anti-Aging Modulator

Bocheva et al., 2024

International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2024;25(10):5122.

[4] Melatonin and Mitochondrial Neuroprotection: New Therapeutic Perspectives in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Bao et al., 2026

Biology (Basel). 2026;15(2):189.

[5] Dual Sources of Melatonin and Evidence Supporting Distinct Primary Functions

Reiter et al., 2024

Frontiers in Endocrinology. 2024;15:1414463.

[6] Melatonin Supplementation: New Perspectives on Health and Disease

Minari e Pisani, 2025

Sleep and Breathing. 2025;29(2):169.

[7] The Effects of Melatonin Supplementation on Sleep Quality: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Fatemeh et al., 2022

Journal of Neurology. 2022;269(1):205-216.

[8] Effect of Melatonin on Insomnia and Daytime Sleepiness in Patients with Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Insomnia (COMISA): A Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Trial

Motlaq et al., 2024

Journal of Pharmaceutical Health Care and Sciences. 2024;10(1):25.

[9] The Effect of Melatonin on Sleep Quality and Daytime Sleepiness in Parkinson's Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Placebo-Controlled Randomized Trials

Zrineh et al., 2025

Sleep Medicine. 2025;131:106540.

[10] Use of Melatonin in Children with Neurodevelopmental Disorders and Impaired Sleep (MENDS): A Randomised, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Parallel Study

Appleton et al., 2012

Health Technology Assessment. 2012;16(40):i-239.

[11] Improving Sleep Quality and Quantity in Hospitalized Patients with Melatonin: A Quality Improvement Project at HCA Oak Hill Hospital

Ren et al., 2025

Cureus. 2025;17(12):e100510.

[12] Sleep Well. Untangling the Role of Melatonin MT1 and MT2 Receptors in Sleep

Gobbi e Comai, 2019

Journal of Pineal Research. 2019;66(3):e12544.

[13] Differential Function of Melatonin MT1 and MT2 Receptors in REM and NREM Sleep

Gobbi e Comai, 2019

Frontiers in Endocrinology. 2019;10:87.

[14] Characterization of the Sleep-Wake Cycle in MT1/MT2 Double Knockout Mice and Comparison with MT1 and MT2 Receptor Knockout Mice

Comai et al., 2013

Behavioural Brain Research. 2013;243:231-238.

[15] Melatonin, Melatonin Receptors and Sleep: Beyond Traditional Views

Comai e Gobbi, 2024

Journal of Pineal Research. 2024;76(7):e13011.

[16] Exogenous Melatonin Neuroprotective Effect on Noradrenergic Neurons of the Locus Coeruleus Following REM Sleep Deprivation in Adult Male Rats

Jameie et al., 2019

Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy. 2019;100:101656.

[17] Importance of the Locus Coeruleus-Norepinephrine System in Sleep-Wake Regulation: Implications for Aging and Alzheimer's Disease

Van Egroo et al., 2022

Sleep Medicine Reviews. 2022;62:101592.

[18] Chronic Sleep Restriction Causes Enduring Sleep-Wake Disturbances and Degeneration of Locus Coeruleus and Orexinergic Neurons

Zhu et al., 2016

Sleep. 2016;39(8):1601-1611.

[19] Selective Enhancement of REM Sleep in Male Rats by Melatonin MT1 Receptor Activation in Locus Coeruleus Noradrenergic Neurons

López-Canul et al., 2024

Journal of Neuroscience. 2024;44(29):e0914232024.

[20] When the Locus Coeruleus Wakes Up During Sleep: Recent Insights and Emerging Perspectives

Osorio-Forero et al., 2022

International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2022;23(9):5028.

[21] Hypocretin (orexin) activation and synaptic innervation of the locus coeruleus noradrenergic system

Horvath et al., 1999

Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1999;415(2):145-159. <145::AID-CNE1>3.0.CO;2-2.

[22] Orexin A Activates Locus Coeruleus Cell Firing and Increases Arousal in the Rat

Hagan et al., 1999

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1999;96(19):10911-10916.

[23] Hypocretin-1 Modulates Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Through Activation of the Locus Coeruleus Neurons

Bourgin et al., 2000

Journal of Neuroscience. 2000;20(20):7760-7765.

[24] The Neural Circuit of Orexin (Hypocretin): Maintaining Sleep and Wakefulness

Sakurai, 2007

Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2007; 8(3):171-181.

[25] Orexin Neurons Suppress Narcolepsy via 2 Distinct Effector Pathways

Hasegawa et al., 2014

Journal of Clinical Investigation. 2014;124(2):604-616.

[26] Melatonin Inhibits Orexin Neurons in the Perifornical Lateral Hypothalamus and Promotes Non-Rapid Eye Movement Sleep in Mice

Sharma et al., 2018

Journal of Pineal Research. 2018;65(2):e12498.

[27] The Role of Orexin Neuronal Activity in Sleep-Wake Regulation

Hung e Yamanaka, 2023

Peptides. 2023;165:171007.

[28] Effectiveness of a Melatonin Receptor Agonist and Orexin Receptor Antagonists in Preventing Delirium Symptoms in Elderly Patients With Stroke: A Retrospective Study

Miyoshi et al., 2024

Journal of Pharmaceutical Health Care and Sciences. 2024;10(1):74.

[29] Update on Melatonin Receptors: IUPHAR Review 20

Jockers et al., 2016

British Journal of Pharmacology. 2016;173(18):2702-2725.

[30] Human Gastroenteropancreatic Expression of Melatonin and its MT1 and MT2 Receptors

Söderquist et al., 2015

PLoS One. 2015;10(3):e0120195.

[31] Melatonin Membrane Receptors in Peripheral Tissues: Distribution and Functions

Slominski et al., 2012

Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology. 2012;351(2):152-166.

[32] Melatonin Membrane Receptors in the Vascular System: Function, Modulation and Clinical Relevance

da Rocha-Carvalho et al., 2025

Journal of Pineal Research. 2025;77(6):e70090.

[33] Cellular Signaling of Melatonin and its Role in Metabolic Disorders

Tripathy e Bhattamisra, 2025

Molecular Biology Reports. 2025;52(1):193.

[34] Role of Melatonin in the Regulation of Autophagy and Mitophagy: A Review

Coto-Montes et al., 2012

Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology. 2012;361(1-2):12-23.

[35] Potential Therapeutic Actions of Melatonin in the Regulation of Autophagy: A Review

Boga et al., 2019

Journal of Pineal Research. 2019;66(1):e12534.

[36] Melatonin Prevents Chronic Intermittent Hypoxia-Induced Injury by Inducing Sirtuin 1-Mediated Autophagy in Steatotic Liver of Mice

Ren et al., 2019

Sleep and Breathing. 2019;23(3):825-836.

[37] Melatonin Induces Autophagy via Reactive Oxygen Species-Mediated Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Pathway in Colorectal Cancer Cells

Chok et al., 2021

Molecules. 2021;26(16):5038.

[38] Potential Influence of Melatonin on Mitochondrial Quality Control: A Review

Lei et al., 2024

Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2024;14:1332567.

[39] Modulation of Autophagy by Melatonin and Its Receptors: Implications in Brain Disorders

Zhu et al., 2025

Acta Pharmacologica Sinica. 2025;46(3):525-538.

[40] Melatonin Induces Autophagy in Neuroblastoma by Alleviating Pak2-Mediated Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress

Qiu et al., 2026

Molecular Medicine Reports. 2026;33(2):74.

[41] Melatonin Improves Osteogenic Differentiation in a High-Glucose Environment by Activating NRF2 to Promote Autophagy Through Regulation of Macrophage–BMSC Crosstalk

Zhang et al., 2026

Inflammation Research. 2026;75(1):112.

[42] Exercise as a Metabolic Regulator: Targeting AMPK/mTOR-Autophagy Crosstalk in Sarcopenic Obesity

Zhang et al., 2026

Aging and Disease. 2026;17(4):1904–1915.

[43] New Developments in the Interplay Between AMPK and mTORC1

Smiles et al., 2024

Essays in Biochemistry. 2024;68(3):321-336.

[44] Contrasting Views on the Role of AMPK in Autophagy

Kim, 2024

BioEssays. 2024;46(3):e2300211.

[45] AMPK and Autophagy: The Dual Nature of an Energy Sensor in the Regulation of Cellular Survival

Mandic et al., 2025

American Journal of Physiology - Cell Physiology. 2025;329(5):C1380-C1397.

[46] Targeting the AMPK/mTOR Signaling Pathway in Atherosclerosis Management: The Ultimate Leverage

Al-Kuraishy et al., 2025

International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2025;309(Pt 2):142933.

[47] Melatonin Attenuates Vascular Calcification by Activating Autophagy via an AMPK/mTOR/ULK1 Signaling Pathway

Chen et al., 2020

Experimental Cell Research. 2020;389(1):111883.

[48] Melatonin Promotes Progesterone Secretion in Sheep Luteal Cells by Regulating Autophagy Through the AMPK/mTOR Pathway

Duan et al., 2024

Theriogenology. 2024;214:342-351.

[49] Melatonin Protects Rabbit Sperm During Cryopreservation by Reducing Oxidative Stress Through AMPK Activation

Zhu et al., 2019

Cryobiology. 2019;88:1-8.

[50] Melatonin Regulates Ovarian Activity and Delays Fertility Decline Through the MT1/AMPK Signaling Pathway

Zhang et al., 2019

Journal of Pineal Research. 2019;66(3):e12550.

[51] Melatonin Suppresses Milk Fat Synthesis Through MT1-Mediated Inhibition of mTOR Signaling in Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cells

Wang et al., 2019

Journal of Pineal Research. 2019;67(3):e12593.

Capítulo 29 · Magnesio y funcionamiento de las reacciones metabólicas (23)

[1] Effects of Magnesium Supplementation on Muscle Soreness in Different Type of Physical Activities: A Systematic Review

Tarsitano et al., 2024

Journal of Translational Medicine, 2024, 22:629.

[2] Magnesium Supplementation and Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials

Argeros et al., 2025

Hypertension, 2025, 82(11):1844-1856.

[3] The Effects of Magnesium L-Threonate (Magtein®) on Cognitive Performance and Sleep Quality in Adults: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial

Lopresti e Smith, 2026

Frontiers in Nutrition, 2026, 12:1729164.

[4] The Effect of Combined Magnesium and Vitamin D Supplementation on Vitamin D Status, Systemic Inflammation, and Blood Pressure: A Randomized Double-Blind Controlled Trial

Cheung et al., 2022

Nutrition, 2022, 99-100:111674.

[5] Role of Magnesium Supplementation in the Treatment of Depression: A Randomized Clinical Trial

Tarleton et al., 2017

PLoS One, 2017, 12(6):e0180067.

[6] Effects of Magnesium and Potassium Supplementation on Insomnia and Sleep Hormones in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus

Khalid et al., 2024

Frontiers in Endocrinology, 2024, 15:1370733.

[7] Association Between Magnesium Intake and Predicted Atherosclerotic Lesions and Cardiovascular Risk in Young Adults Based on the PDAY Score: A Cross-Sectional Study

Song et al., 2024

BMC Public Health. 2024;24(1):3232.

[8] Magnesium, Potassium, and Calcium Intakes and Risk of Stroke in Two Cohorts of US Women and Updated Meta-Analyses

Adebamowo et al., 2015

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2015;101(6):1269-1277.

[9] Association Between Dietary Magnesium Intake and Stroke Risk in American Adults

Sun et al., 2023

International Heart Journal. 2023;64(6):1002-1009.

[10] Magnesium Intake and All-Cause Mortality After Stroke: A Cohort Study

Wang et al., 2023

Nutrition Journal. 2023;22(1):54.

[11] Dietary Magnesium Intake and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies

Fang et al., 2016

Nutrients. 2016;8(11):739.

[12] Mediating Role of Oxidative Balance Score in the Association Between Magnesium-Rich Diet and Cardiovascular Mortality: Results From the PLCO Cohort Study

Lei et al., 2025

Atherosclerosis. 2025;410:120528.

[13] A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials on the Effects of Magnesium Supplementation on Insulin Sensitivity and Glucose Control

Simental-Mendía et al., 2016

Pharmacological Research. 2016;111:272-282.

[14] Oral Magnesium Supplementation for Treating Glucose Metabolism Parameters in People with Diabetes or at Risk of Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Double-Blind Randomized Controlled Trials

Veronese et al., 2021

Nutrients. 2021;13(11):4074.

[15] Oral Magnesium Supplementation Improves Glycaemic Status in Subjects with Prediabetes and Hypomagnesaemia: A Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Randomized Trial

Guerrero-Romero et al., 2015

Diabetes & Metabolism. 2015;41(3):202-207.

[16] Deep-Sea Water Mineral Extract Supplementation Improves Insulin Sensitivity in Subjects with Impaired Glucose Tolerance: A Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Trial

Ham et al., 2024

Medicina (Kaunas). 2024;60(8):1265.

[17] Impact of Oral Magnesium Supplementation on Glycemic and Cardiometabolic Outcomes in Prediabetic Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Basit et al., 2026

Journal of Diabetes & Metabolic Disorders. 2026;25(1):45.

[18] Role of Magnesium Supplementation on Glycaemic Control in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Prospective, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study

Dalal et al., 2025

International Journal of Advances in Medicine. 2025;12(4):371-375.

[19] A Magnesium-Sensitive Upstream ORF Controls PRL Phosphatase Expression to Mediate Energy Metabolism

Hardy et al., 2019

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2019, 116(8):2925-2934.

[20] The AMPK/mTOR Pathway Is Involved in Magnesium-Containing TiO2 Surface-Induced Autophagy to Promote Osteogenic Differentiation of Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Wang et al., 2022

Journal of Functional Biomaterials, 2022, 13(4):221.

[21] Magnesium Supplementation Stimulates Autophagy to Reduce Lipid Accumulation in Hepatocytes Through the AMPK/mTOR Pathway

Chen et al., 2023

Biological Trace Element Research, 2023, 201(7):3311-3322.

[22] Magnesium-Coated Ti6Al4V Scaffolds Promote Autophagy-Dependent Apoptosis in Osteosarcoma Through Activation of the AMPK/mTOR/ULK1 Signaling Pathway

Wei et al., 2021

Materials Today Bio, 2021, 12:100147.

[23] Magnesium Isoglycyrrhizinate Attenuates Acetaminophen-Induced Acute Liver Injury With Hyperglycemia by Modulating Autophagy and Oxidative Stress in Kupffer Cells

Bu et al., 2026

Frontiers in Pharmacology, 2026, 17:1744099.

Capítulo 30 · La canela (26)

[1] Pharmacological properties and their medicinal uses of Cinnamomum: a review

Kumar et al., 2019

J Pharm Pharmacol. 2019 Dec;71(12):1735-1761.

[2] Cinnamon for Metabolic Diseases and Their Cardiovascular and Hepatic Complications: A Mechanistic Review

Wu et al., 2024

Am J Chin Med. 2024;52(8):2403-2421.

[3] Dietary cinnamon promotes longevity and extends healthspan via mTORC1 and autophagy signaling

Guo et al., 2025

Aging Cell. 2025 Apr;24(4):e14448.

[4] Cinnamon: a nutraceutical supplement for the cardiovascular system

Mohammadabadi e Jain, 2024

Arch Med Sci Atheroscler Dis. 2024 Mar 30:9:e72-e81.

[5] Advances in pharmacological effects and mechanism of action of cinnamaldehyde

Guo et al., 2024

Review Front Pharmacol. 2024 Jun 6:15:1365949.

[6] Cinnamon effects on blood pressure and metabolic profile: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial in patients with stage 1 hypertension

Shirzad et al., 2021

Avicenna J Phytomed. 2021 Jan-Feb;11(1):91-100.

[7] Effects of cinnamon supplementation on metabolic biomarkers in individuals with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis

de Moura et al., 2025

Nutr Rev. 2025 Feb 1;83(2):249-279.

[8] Effect of cinnamon as a Chinese herbal medicine on markers of cardiovascular risk in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

Xiaomei e Xiaoyan, 2024

Meta-Analysis Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2024 Sep:300:253-261.

[9] The beneficial effects of cinnamon among patients with metabolic diseases: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized-controlled trials

Kutbi et al., 2022

Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2022;62(22):6113-6131.

[10] The effect of cinnamon supplementation on cardiovascular risk factors in adults: a GRADE assessed systematic review, dose-response and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

Jafari et al., 2025

J Health Popul Nutr. 2025 Jul 3;44(1):233.

[11] Cinnamon and cognitive function: a systematic review of preclinical and clinical studies

Nakhaee et al., 2024

Nutr Neurosci. 2024 Feb;27(2):132-146.

[12] Cinnamaldehyde: Pharmacokinetics, anticancer properties and therapeutic potential (Review)

Han et al., 2024

Mol Med Rep. 2024 Sep;30(3):163.

[13] Anti-diabetic and antioxidant effect of cinnamon in poorly controlled type-2 diabetic Iraqi patients: A randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial

Sahib, 2016

J Intercult Ethnopharmacol. 2016 Feb 21;5(2):108-13.

[14] Effect of cinnamon on migraine attacks and inflammatory markers: A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial

Zareie et al., 2020

Phytother Res. 2020 Nov;34(11):2945-2952.

[15] Cinnamaldehyde mitigates polycystic ovary syndrome pathologies by modulating NLRP3/NF-κB mediated inflammation using letrozole-induced model in female rats: a comprehensive in vitro,in vivo, in silico investigation

Siddiqua et al., 2026

Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 2026;399(2):2427–2445.

[16] Potential Effect of Cinnamaldehyde on Insulin Resistance Is Mediated by Glucose and Lipid Homeostasis

Frederico et al., 2025

Nutrients, 2025, 17(2):297.

[17] The Effects of Cinnamon on Patients with Metabolic Diseases: An Umbrella Review of Meta-Analyses of Randomized Controlled Trials

Gou et al., 2025

Frontiers in Nutrition, 2025, 12:1683477.

[18] Cinnamaldehyde induces apoptosis and enhances anti-colorectal cancer activity via covalent binding to HSPD1

Zhang et al., 2024

Phytother Res. 2024 Oct;38(10):4957-4966.

[19] Cinnamaldehyde Suppressed EGF-Induced EMT Process and Inhibits Ovarian Cancer Progression Through PI3K/AKT Pathway

Wang et al., 2022

Front Pharmacol. 2022 May 12:13:779608.

[20] Cinnamaldehyde Downregulation of Sept9 Inhibits Glioma Progression through Suppressing Hif-1 α via the Pi3k/Akt Signaling Pathway

Wang et al., 2022

Dis Markers. 2022 Jan 19:2022:6530934.

[21] The inhibition of hypoxia-induced angiogenesis and metastasis by cinnamaldehyde is mediated by decreasing HIF-1α protein synthesis via PI3K/Akt pathway

Patra et al., 2019

Biofactors. 2019 May;45(3):401-415.

[22] Cinnamomum zeylanicum Extract and its Bioactive Component Cinnamaldehyde Show Anti-Tumor Effects via Inhibition of Multiple Cellular Pathways

Aggarwal et al., 2022

Front Pharmacol. 2022 Jun 2:13:918479.

[23] Cinnamaldehyde Prevents Adipocyte Differentiation and Adipogenesis via Regulation of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor-γ (PPARγ) and AMP-Activated Protein Kinase (AMPK) Pathways

Huang et al., 2011

Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2011, 59(8):3666-3673.

[24] Trans-Cinnamic Acid Alleviates High-Fat Diet-Induced Hepatic Steatosis by Activating the AMPK-mTOR Pathway

Jia et al., 2026

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta - Molecular and Cell Biology of Lipids, 2026, 1871(4):159741.

[25] Cinnamon Extract Enhances Glucose Uptake in 3T3-L1 Adipocytes and C2C12 Myocytes by Inducing LKB1-AMP-Activated Protein Kinase Signaling

Shen et al., 2014

PLoS One, 2014, 9(2):e87894.

[26] Trans-Cinnamic Acid Increases Adiponectin and the Phosphorylation of AMP-Activated Protein Kinase through G-Protein-Coupled Receptor Signaling in 3T3-L1 Adipocytes

Kopp et al., 2014

International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2014, 15(2):2906-2915.

Capítulo 31 · La cúrcuma (29)

[1] The Golden Spice for Life: Turmeric with the Pharmacological Benefits of Curcuminoids Components, Including Curcumin, Bisdemethoxycurcumin, and Demethoxycurcumins

Shahrajabian e Sun, 2024

Curr Org Synth. 2024;21(5):665-683.

[2] Turmeric: from spice to cure. A review of the anti-cancer, radioprotective and anti-inflammatory effects of turmeric sourced compounds

Cozmin et al., 2024

Front Nutr. 2024 May 28:11:1399888.

[3] Effects of turmeric (Curcuma longa) and its constituent (curcumin) on the metabolic syndrome: An updated review

Vafaeipour et al., 2022

J Integr Med. 2022 May;20(3):193-203.

[4] Is Curcumin Intake Really Effective for Chronic Inflammatory Metabolic Disease? A Review of Meta-Analyses of Randomized Controlled Trials

Lee e Kim, 2024

Nutrients. 2024 May 31;16(11):1728.

[5] Effect of curcumin on cardiometabolic diseases in the elderly: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials

Rajabinasab et al., 2025

Ageing Res Rev. 2025 Aug:110:102801.

[6] Effects of turmeric (Curcuma longa) supplementation on glucose metabolism in diabetes mellitus and metabolic syndrome: An umbrella review and updated meta-analysis

Pathomwichaiwat et al., 2023

PLoS One. 2023 Jul 20;18(7):e0288997.

[7] Effects of curcumin/turmeric supplementation on glycemic indices in adults: A grade-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

Dehzad et al., 2023

Diabetes Metab Syndr. 2023 Oct;17(10):102855.

[8] Curcumin Attenuates Hyperglycemia and Inflammation in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Quantitative Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trial

Mokgalaboni et al., 2024

Nutrients. 2024 Nov 30;16(23):4177.

[9] Impacts of Curcumin Supplementation on Cardiometabolic Risk Factors in Patients With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis

Mohammadi et al., 2025

Health Sci Rep. 2025 Mar 2;8(3):e70525.

[10] Safety and Efficacy of Turmeric (Curcuma longa) Extract and Curcumin Supplements in Musculoskeletal Health: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Doyle et al., 2023

Altern Ther Health Med. 2023 Sep;29(6):12-24. PMID: 37574203.

[11] Curcumin and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Prevention and Treatment

Pivari et al., 2019

Nutrients. 2019 Aug 8;11(8):1837.

[12] Curcumin and Curcuma longa Extract in the Treatment of 10 Types of Autoimmune Diseases: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of 31 Randomized Controlled Trials

Zeng et al., 2022

Front Immunol. 2022 Aug 1:13:896476.

[13] Curcumin in Inflammatory Complications: Therapeutic Applications and Clinical Evidence

Zafar et al., 2025

Int J Mol Sci. 2025 Sep 25;26(19):9366.

[14] Effects and Mechanisms of Curcumin for the Prevention and Management of Cancers: An Updated Review

Yang et al., 2022

Antioxidants (Basel). 2022 Jul 28;11(8):1481.

[15] Potential therapeutic benefits of curcumin in depression or anxiety induced by chronic diseases: a systematic review of mechanistic and clinical evidence

Yuan et al., 2025

Front Pharmacol. 2025 Aug 22:16:1638645.

[16] Curcumin and Multiple Health Outcomes: Umbrella Review of Meta-Analyses on Interventions

Xu et al., 2025

Frontiers in Pharmacology, 2025, 16:1601204.

[17] Effect of Curcumin on Glycemic Control in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials

Mahdavi et al., 2021

Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 2021, 1291:139-149.

[18] The Effect of Curcumin Supplementation on Glycemic Indices in Adults: A Meta-Analysis of Meta-Analyses

Zheng et al., 2024

Prostaglandins and Other Lipid Mediators, 2024, 175:106908.

[19] Effects of Curcumin and Piperine Combination on Glycemic Profile in Patients with Prediabetes and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Widjanarko et al., 2024

Journal of the ASEAN Federation of Endocrine Societies, 2024, 39(1):106-114.

[20] Curcumin and Piperine Supplementation Modulates Inflammation, Oxidative Stress and Cardiometabolic Risk: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials

Pan et al., 2026

Frontiers in Nutrition, 2026, 13:1814168.

[21] Targeting mTOR with curcumin: therapeutic implications for complex diseases

Khayatan et al., 2025

Inflammopharmacology. 2025 Apr;33(4):1583-1616.

[22] The PI3K/Akt pathway: a target for curcumin's therapeutic effects

Aliyari et al., 2025

J Diabetes Metab Disord. 2025 Jan 17;24(1):52.

[23] Antitumor activity of curcumin by modulation of apoptosis and autophagy in human lung cancer A549 cells through inhibiting PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway

Liu et al., 2018

Oncol Rep. 2018 Mar;39(3):1523-1531.

[24] Curcumin induces autophagy, inhibits proliferation and invasion by downregulating AKT/mTOR signaling pathway in human melanoma cells

Zhao et al., 2016

Oncol Rep. 2016 Feb;35(2):1065-74.

[25] Curcumin Induces Autophagy-mediated Ferroptosis by Targeting the PI3K/AKT/mTOR Signaling Pathway in Gastric Cancer

Zheng et al., 2024

Turk J Gastroenterol. 2024 Jul 3;35(8):625-633.

[26] The mechanism of curcumin to protect mouse ovaries from oxidative damage by regulating AMPK/mTOR mediated autophagy

Duan et al., 2024

Phytomedicine. 2024;128:155468.

[27] Curcumin Attenuates High Glucose-Induced Lipid Accumulation in HepG2 Cells through AMPK Activation and mTOR Suppression

Chen et al., 2025

Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 2025, 790:152879.

[28] Curcumin Improves Aging-Induced Blood-Testis Barrier Impairment by Regulating AMPK/mTOR-Mediated Autophagy

Xue et al., 2025

PLoS One, 2025, 20(4):e0321752.

[29] AMPK/mTOR/ULK1 Signaling Pathway Participates in Curcumin-Induced Autophagy in a Murine Model of Colorectal Adenoma

Wang et al., 2025

Drug Development Research, 2025, 86(5):e70115.

Capítulo 32 · El clavo de olor (27)

[1] Eugenol: An Insight Into the Anticancer Perspective and Pharmacological Aspects

Noman et al., 2025

Food Sci Nutr. 2025 Aug 3;13(8):e70727.

[2] Pharmacological Properties and Health Benefits of Eugenol: A Comprehensive Review

Nisar et al., 2021

Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2021 Aug 3:2021:2497354.

[3] Anticancer Properties of Eugenol: A Review

Zari et al., 2021

Molecules. 2021 Dec 6;26(23):7407.

[4] Anticancer potential of eugenol in hepatocellular carcinoma through modulation of oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, and proliferation mechanisms

Zaky et al., 2025

Discov Oncol. 2025 Jun 12;16(1):1080.

[5] In vitro synergy of eugenol and methyleugenol with fluconazole against clinical Candida isolates

Ahmad et al., 2010

J Med Microbiol. 2010 Oct;59(Pt 10):1178-1184.

[6] Effects of Clove and Fermented Ginger on Blood Glucose, Leptin, Insulin and Insulin Receptor Levels in High Fat DietInduced Type 2 Diabetic Rabbits

Abdulrazak et al., 2018

Niger J Physiol Sci. 2018 Jun 30;33(1):89-93. PMID: 30091738.

[7] Water-soluble polyphenol-rich clove extract lowers pre- and post-prandial blood glucose levels in healthy and prediabetic volunteers: an open label pilot study

Mohan et al., 2019

BMC Complement Altern Med. 2019 May 7;19(1):99.

[8] Eugenol, A Major Component of Clove Oil, Attenuates Adiposity, and Modulates Gut Microbiota in High-Fat Diet-Fed Mice

Li et al., 2022

Mol Nutr Food Res. 2022 Oct;66(20):e2200387.

[9] Spermidine-Eugenol Supplement Preserved Inflammation-Challenged Intestinal Cells by Stimulating Autophagy

Truzzi et al., 2023

Int J Mol Sci. 2023 Feb 18;24(4):4131.

[10] Dietary Isoeugenol Supplementation Attenuates Chronic UVB-Induced Skin Photoaging and Modulates Gut Microbiota in Mice

Geng et al., 2024

Nutrients. 2024 Feb 7;16(4):481.

[11] Ameliorating effect of eugenol on hyperglycemia by attenuating the key enzymes of glucose metabolism in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

Srinivasan et al., 2014

Mol Cell Biochem. 2014 Jan;385(1-2):159-68.

[12] Eugenol alleviated nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in rat via a gut-brain-liver axis involving glucagon-like Peptide-1

Li et al., 2022

Arch Biochem Biophys. 2022 Aug 15:725:109269.

[13] Impact of Clove Essential Oil on the Intestinal Flora in Mice Infected with Candida albicans

Gao et al., 2025

Molecules. 2025 May 29;30(11):2372.

[14] Probenecid and Eugenol Mitigate Testosterone Induced Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia by Targeting Uric Acid-Induced Inflammation and Pro-Survival Pathways

Abdali et al., 2025

Prostate. 2025 Nov;85(15):1412-1423.

[15] A comprehensive and systematic review on potential anticancer activities of eugenol: From pre-clinical evidence to molecular mechanisms of action

Begum et al., 2022

Phytomedicine. 2022 Dec:107:154456.

[16] Effect of Eugenol Treatment in Hyperglycemic Animal Models: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Carvalho et al., 2021

Pharmacological Research, 2021, 165:105315.

[17] Polyphenols of Clove Buds (Syzygium aromaticum L.) Contribute to Attenuate Metabolic Syndrome by Restoring Intracellular Redox Homeostasis and Glucose Metabolism: A Randomized Double-Blinded Controlled Study

Thomas et al., 2022

Journal of Functional Foods, 2022, 98:105273.

[18] Eugenol Improves Muscle Dysfunction in High-Fat Diet and Streptozotocin-Induced Type 2 Diabetic Mice by Alleviating Inflammation and Increasing Muscle Glucose Uptake

Jiang et al., 2022

Frontiers in Nutrition, 2022, 9:1039753.

[19] Eugenol ameliorates Insulin Resistance, Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in High Fat-Diet/Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Rat

Al-Trad et al., 2019

Life Sciences, 2019, 216:183-188.

[20] Inhibition effect of active fraction from clove on PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway to induce apoptosis of human colon cancer HCT116 cells

Zhao et al., 2021

Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi. 2021 Mar;46(5):1197-1204.

[21] Active fraction of clove induces apoptosis via PI3K/Akt/mTOR-mediated autophagy in human colorectal cancer HCT-116 cells

Liu et al., 2018

Int J Oncol. 2018 Sep;53(3):1363-1373.

[22] Tumor suppressive roles of eugenol in human lung cancer cells

Li e Yang, 2018

Thorac Cancer. 2018 Jan;9(1):25-29.

[23] Eugenol alleviates acrylamide-induced rat testicular toxicity by modulating AMPK/p-AKT/mTOR signaling pathway and blood–testis barrier remodeling

Saleh et al., 2024

Sci Rep. 2024 Jan 22;14(1):1910.

[24] Apoptotic efficacies of AgNPs formulated by Syzygium aromaticum leaf extract on 32D-FLT3-ITD human leukemia cell line with PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway

Guo et al., 2025

Open Life Sci. 2025 Sep 23;20(1):20251161.

[25] Eugenol Attenuates Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury by Enhancing Autophagy via AMPK-mTOR-P70S6K Pathway

Sun et al., 2020

Frontiers in Pharmacology, 2020, 11:84.

[26] Eugenol: A Promising Therapeutic Terpenoid Against Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Randhawa et al., 2026

EXCLI Journal, 2026, 25:222-237.

[27] Eugenol Ameliorates Hepatic Steatosis and Fibrosis by Down-Regulating of SREBP1 Gene Expression via AMPK-mTOR-p70S6K Signaling Pathway

Jo et al., 2014

Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 2014, 37(8):1341-1351.

Capítulo 33 · El orégano (19)

[1] Chemical Composition, Biological Activity, and Potential Uses of Oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) and Oregano Essential Oil

Nurzyńska-Wierdak e Walasek-Janusz, 2025

Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2025 Feb 18;18(2):267.

[2] Therapeutic application of carvacrol: A comprehensive review

Imran et al., 2022

Food Sci Nutr. 2022 Aug 3;10(11):3544-3561.

[3] Protective effects of carvacrol on lipid profiles, oxidative stress, hypertension, and cardiac dysfunction - A comprehensive review

Khazdair et al., 2024

Food Sci Nutr. 2024 Feb 5;12(5):3137-3149.

[4] Carvacrol as a Potential Neuroprotective Agent for Neurological Diseases: A Systematic Review Article

Zamanian et al., 2021

CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets. 2021;20(10):942-953.

[5] From Nature to Neuroscience: Exploring Carvacrol's Therapeutic Potential in Brain Health

Goyal et al., 2025

Cent Nerv Syst Agents Med Chem. 2025 Nov 3.

[6] Carvacrol is potential molecule for diabetes treatment

Hoca et al., 2024

Review Arch Physiol Biochem. 2024 Dec;130(6):823-830.

[7] Carvacrol in asthma management: a comprehensive review of its therapeutic potential and mechanisms of action

Neopane e Kushwaha, 2025

Pharmacol Rep. 2025 Jun;77(3):610-623.

[8] In vivo and In silico evidence of the protective properties of carvacrol against experimentally-induced gastric ulcer: Implication of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic mechanisms

Badr et al., 2023

Chem Biol Interact. 2023 Sep 1:382:110649.

[9] Neuroprotective Potential and Underlying Pharmacological Mechanism of Carvacrol for Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Diseases

Javed et al., 2023

Review Curr Neuropharmacol. 2023;21(6):1421-1432.

[10] Targeting Gastrointestinal Cancers with Carvacrol: Mechanistic Insights and Therapeutic Potential

Patwa et al., 2025

Biomolecules. 2025 May 27;15(6):777.

[11] Protective Effect of Carvacrol on liver injury in Type 2 Diabetic db/db Mice

Zhao et al., 2021

Molecular Medicine Reports, 2021, 24(5):741.

[12] Origanum vulgare L. Essential Oil Mitigates Palmitic Acid-Induced Impairments in Insulin Signaling and Glucose Uptake in Human Adipocytes

Müller et al., 2025

Pharmaceuticals (Basel), 2025, 18(8):1128.

[13] Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic prospects of Carvacrol and Thymol in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Review

Ali e Mishra, 2026

Comparative Clinical Pathology, 2026, 35:24.

[14] Molecular insights on chemopreventive and anticancer potential of carvacrol: Implications from solid carcinomas

Ahmad et al., 2021

J Food Biochem. 2021 Dec;45(12):e14010.

[15] Carvacrol as a Prospective Regulator of Cancer Targets/Signalling Pathways

Singh et al., 2023

Curr Mol Pharmacol. 2023 Mar 27;16(5):542-558.

[16] Carvacrol: An In Silico Approach of a Candidate Drug on HER2, PI3K α, mTOR, hER- α, PR, and EGFR Receptors in the Breast Cancer

Herrera-Calderon et al., 2020

Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2020 Oct 26:2020:8830665.

[17] Carvacrol Shows Potential as a Treatment for Endometriosis with Inflammatory Reaction and Antioxidant Properties, Demonstrated in both In Vivo and In Vitro Studies

Jang et al., 2025

Reproductive Sciences. 2025;32(6):1825– 1839.

[18] Carvacrol Promotes Cell Cycle Arrest and Apoptosis through PI3K/AKT Signaling Pathway in MCF-7 Breast Cancer Cells

Mari et al., 2021

Chin J Integr Med. 2021 Sep;27(9):680-687.

[19] Carvacrol Protects against Hepatic Steatosis in Mice Fed a High-Fat Diet by Enhancing SIRT1-AMPK Signaling

Kim et al., 2013

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2013, 2013:290104.

Capítulo 34 · La pimienta negra (27)

[1] Piperine: Old Spice and New Nutraceutical?

Smilkov et al., 2019

Current Pharmaceutical Design. 2019;25(15):1729-1739.

[2] Neuroprotective Effects of Black Pepper and Its Bioactive Compounds in Age-Related Neurological Disorders

Balakrishnan et al., 2023

Aging Dis. 2023;14(3):750–777.

[3] Cancer Chemoprevention and Piperine: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Opportunities

Rather e Bhagat, 2018

Front Cell Dev Biol. 2018;6:10.

[4] The Multifaceted Antimicrobial Profile of Piperine in Infectious Disease Management: Current Perspectives and Potential

Periferakis et al., 2025

Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2025;18(10):1581.

[5] A critical review on the extraction and pharmacotherapeutic activity of piperine

Imran et al., 2022

Polim Med. 2022;52(1):31–36.

[6] Efficacy of curcumin plus piperine co-supplementation in moderate-to-high hepatic steatosis: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial

Sharifi et al., 2023

Phytother Res. 2023;37(6):2217–2229.

[7] Effectiveness of the piperine-supplemented Curcuma longa L. in metabolic control of patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial

Figueiredo Neta et al., 2021

Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2021;72(7):968–977.

[8] The Effects of Curcumin Plus Piperine Supplementation in Patients with Acute Myocardial Infarction: A Randomized, Double-Blind, and Placebo-Controlled Trial

Tabaee et al., 2021

Adv Exp Med Biol. 2021;1328:199–211.

[9] Curcumin plus piperine improve body composition in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial

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[10] The effect of turmeric and black pepper powder incorporated in breakfast on postprandial glycemia, appetite, palatability, and gastrointestinal well-being in normal-weight adults

Khan et al., 2024

Food Sci Nutr. 2024;12(4):2846–2854.

[11] Curcumin and Piperine Combination for the Treatment of Patients with Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: A Double-Blind Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trial

Mirhafez et al., 2021

Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 2021;1328:11-19.

[12] The Impact of Piperine on the Metabolic Conditions in Patients with NAFLD and Early Cirrhosis: A Randomized Double-Blind Controlled Trial

Nouri-Vaskeh et al., 2024

Scientific Reports. 2024;14:1053.

[13] The Hidden Power of Black Pepper: Exploring Piperine’s Role in Cancer

Cinar e Sanlier, 2025

Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 2025;80:129.

[14] Mechanism of piperine in affecting apoptosis and proliferation of gastric cancer cells via ROS-mitochondria-associated signalling pathway

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Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine. 2021;25(20):9513-9522.

[15] Black Pepper and Piperine Induce Anticancer Effects on Leukemia Cell Line

Banerjee et al., 2021

Toxicology Research. 2021;10(2):169-182.

[16] Piperine Attenuates Hepatic Steatosis and Insulin Resistance in High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity in Sprague-Dawley Rats

Wang et al., 2022

Nutrition Research, 2022, 108:9-21.

[17] Piperine Modulates IR/AKT/GLUT4 Pathways to mitigate Insulin Resistance: Evidence from Animal and Computational Studies

Prasad et al., 2023

Int Journal of Biol Macromol, 2023;253(Pt 5):127242.

[18] Piperine Isolated from Nigerian Propolis Modulates GLUT-4 Gene expression and NF-κB in a rat Model of Chronic Fructose and Glucose Intake

Oladayo et al., 2026

Journal of Health Science and Medical Research, 2026.

[19] Piperine Induces Apoptosis and Cell Cycle Arrest via Multiple Oxidative Stress Mechanisms and Regulation of PI3K/AKT and MAPK Signaling in Colorectal Cancer Cells

Chang et al., 2025

Antioxidants (Basel). 2025;14(7):892.

[20] Piperine Induces Apoptosis and Autophagy in Human Oral Cancer HSC-3 Cells by Regulating PI3K Signaling Pathway

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International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2023;24(18):13949.

[21] Piperine induces autophagy of colon cancer cells: Dual modulation of AKT/mTOR signaling pathway and ROS production

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[22] Piperine ameliorates Ischemic Stroke-Induced Brain Injury in Rats by Regulating the PI3K/AKT/mTOR Pathway

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Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2022;295:115309.

[23] Piperine promotes PI3K/AKT/mTOR-mediated gut-brain autophagy to degrade α-Synuclein in Parkinson's disease rats

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[25] Piperine improves ischemic brain injury by promoting the regulation of the AMPK/PGC-1α pathway by Apelin 13

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Capítulo 35 · El jengibre (30)

[1] A recent update on the multifaceted health benefits associated with ginger and its bioactive components

Ma et al., 2021

Food & Function. 2021;12(2):519-542.

[2] Effect of Ginger (Zingiber officinale) Supplementation on Oxidative Stress Parameters: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Morvaridzadeh et al., 2021

Journal of Food Biochemistry. 2021;45(2):e13612.

[3] Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of ginger supplementation in adults: a GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials

Rjabi et al., 2025

Inflammopharmacology. 2025;33(12):7197–7216.

[4] Potential Role of Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) in the Prevention of Neurodegenerative Diseases

Arcusa et al., 2022

Frontiers in Nutrition. 2022;9:809621.

[5] Ginger: A Nutraceutical Supplement for the Protection Against Various Cardiovascular Diseases in Clinical Trials

Mohammadabadi et al., 2025

Cureus. 2025;17(3):e80841.

[6] The effect of ginger powder supplementation on insulin resistance and glycemic indices in patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

Mozaffari-Khosravi et al., 2014

Complementary Therapies in Medicine. 2014;22(1):9-16.

[7] Effects of Ginger Powder Supplementation on Glycemic Status and Lipid Profile in Obese Patients with Newly Diagnosed Type 2 Diabetes

El Gayar et al., 2019

Obesity Medicine. 2019;14:100094.

[8] Effects of Ginger Supplementation on Anthropometric, Glycemic and Metabolic Parameters in Subjects with Metabolic Syndrome: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled study

Rahimlou et al., 2019

Journal of Diabetes & Metabolic Disorders. 2019;18(1):119-125.

[9] The Effects of Ginger Intake on Weight Loss and Metabolic Profiles Among Overweight and Obese Subjects: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Maharlouei et al., 2019

Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2019;59(11):1753-1766.

[10] The Effects of Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) on Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial

Ghoreishi et al., 2024

Journal of Dietary Supplements. 2024;21(3):294-312.

[11] Ginger and Its Components as Cancer Chemopreventive Agents

Lechner e Stoner, 2019

Molecules. 2019;24(16):2859.

[12] Components and Pharmacodynamic Mechanisms of Ginger (Zingiber officinale) in the Prevention and Treatment of Colorectal Cancer

Xiang et al., 2024

Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2024;324:117733.

[13] Effect of Ginger on Inflammatory Diseases

Ballester et al., 2022

Molecules. 2022;27(21):7223.

[14] Ginger and Its Constituents: Role in the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Lashgari et al., 2022

Biofactors. 2022;48(1):7-21.

[15] Effects of Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) on Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Components of the Metabolic Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Zhu et al., 2018

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2018;2018:5692962.

[16] Effect of Ginger on Blood Glucose Level of Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) with Impaired Glucose Tolerance Test (GTT): A Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Trial

Hajimoosayi et al., 2020

BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 2020, 20(1):116.

[17] The Effect of Ginger (Zingiber officinale) on Glycemic Markers in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes

Shidfar et al., 2015

Journal of Complementary and Integrative Medicine, 2015, 12(2):165-170.

[18] The Effect of Zingiber officinale on Prooxidant-Antioxidant Balance and Glycemic Control in Diabetic ESRD Patients Undergoing Hemodialysis: A Randomized Double-Blind Clinical Trial

Rostamkhani et al., 2023

BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 2023, 23(1):52.

[19] 6-Gingerol ameliorates high-fat, high-sucrose diet-induced metabolic dysfunction and depressive-like behaviors by attenuating neuroinflammation and oxidative stress

Essa e El-Metwally, 2026

Metab Brain Dis. 2026 Feb 3;41(1):26.

[20] Ginger Supplementation and Metabolic Health: An Umbrella Review of Meta-Analyses of Randomized Studies

Musazadeh et al., 2026

Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome, 2026;18:158.

[21] Anticancer Effects of 6-Shogaol via the AKT Signaling Pathway in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Huang et al., 2021

Journal of Applied Oral Science. 2021;29:e20210209.

[22] 6-Shogaol Exhibits Antitumor Effects in Cervical Cancer Through PI3K/Akt/mTOR Pathway

Pei et al., 2021

European Journal of Nutrition. 2021;60(5):2781-2793.

[23] 6-Shogaol Prevents TNF-α-Induced Barrier Dysfunction by Inhibiting PI3K/Akt and NF-κB Signaling

Luettig et al., 2016

Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. 2016;60(12):2576-2586.

[24] Research Progress on Ginger in the Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors

Chen et al., 2023

World Journal of Gastrointestinal Oncology. 2023;15(11):1835-1851.

[25] Review of the Antitumor Properties of 6-Shogaol: Mechanisms of Action in Cancer Cells and Future Research Opportunities

Figueroa-González et al., 2024

Food Science & Nutrition. 2024;12(7):4513-4533.

[26] [6]-Gingerol Influences Glucose Metabolism by Dual Regulation via the AMPKα2-Mediated AS160-Rab5 Pathway and Insulin Sensitizing Effects Mediated by AMPK in Skeletal Muscle Cells

Lee et al., 2015

Journal of Cellular Biochemistry, 2015, 116(7):1401-1410.

[27] Effect of 6-Gingerol on the AMPK-NF-κB Axis in High Fat Diet Fed Rats

Hashem et al., 2017

Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 2017, 88:293-301.

[28] 6-Gingerol Ameliorates Hepatic Steatosis, Inflammation, and Oxidative Stress in High-Fat Diet-Fed Mice through Activation of the LKB1/AMPK Signaling Pathway

Liu et al., 2023

International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2023, 24(7):6285.

[29] 6-Gingerol Improves Ectopic Lipid Accumulation, Mitochondrial Dysfunction, and Insulin Resistance in Skeletal Muscle of Ageing Rats: Dual Stimulation of the Adiponectin-AdipoR1-AMPK/PGC-1α Signaling Pathway via Plasma Adiponectin and Muscle AdipoR1

Liu et al., 2019

Molecular Nutrition & Food Research, 2019, 63(6):e1800649.

[30] A Mixture of Ginger Phenols Improves Mitochondrial Function, Activates AMPK, and Reduces Lipid Accumulation in Adipocytes

Preciado-Ortiz et al., 2025

PLoS One, 2025, 20(6):e0326690.